Brief history of Saudi Arabia. History of Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arab.??????? ??????? ???????? ?? al-Mamlaka al-Arabi al-Saudi) is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait to the north, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast and Yemen to the south. It is washed by the Persian Gulf in the northeast and the Red Sea in the west.
Saudi Arabia is often called the "Land of Two Mosques", referring to Mecca and Medina - the two main holy cities of Islam. The short name of the country in Arabic is al-Saudiya (Arabic).???????? ??). Saudi Arabia is currently one of three countries in the world named after the ruling dynasty (Saudis). (Also the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and the Principality of Liechtenstein)
Saudi Arabia, with its colossal oil reserves, is the main state of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. In 2009, it ranked second in the world in oil production and export (after Russia). Oil exports account for 95% of exports and 75% of the country's income, enabling it to support the welfare state.
Climate: The territory of Saudi Arabia is exposed to tropical air currents with dry and hot summers and winters. The influence of air layers on the climate is sometimes increased as a result of the penetration of layers of cold air from Siberia, accompanied by a drop in temperature throughout the country, excluding a narrow section of the coast where the climate is temperate due to the proximity of the sea. In the central regions of the country, a significant increase in temperature is observed in summer. In winter there are thunderstorms with heavy rain. In mountainous areas, the climate is moderately cool, especially in the southwest, where there is a sharp drop in temperature at the peaks of the Al Sarawat mountain range in Asir. / The climate of the eastern province of the country is similar to the climate of the central region due to the proximity of water sources and the sea; in summer there is an increase in humidity.
Rainfall in Saudi Arabia is rare and irregular. The average annual rainfall is about 6 inches, except in the Asir region, which experiences heavy rainfall. The maximum amount of precipitation falls here, up to 20 inches per year. Asir, Al Baha and Taif are considered the best summer holiday destinations, making them a summer travel destination for many residents of Saudi Arabia and the Gulf region. There they enjoy a temperate climate and enchanting scenery.
Ancient history
The territory of present-day Saudi Arabia is the historical homeland of Arab tribes that originally lived in the northeast, and in the 2nd millennium BC. e. occupied the entire Arabian Peninsula. At the same time, the Arabs assimilated the population of the southern part of the peninsula - the Negroids.
From the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. In the south of the peninsula, the Minaan and Sabaean kingdoms existed; the most ancient cities of the Hijaz, Mecca and Medina, arose as their transit trading centers. In the mid-6th century, Mecca united the surrounding tribes and repelled the Ethiopian invasion
At the beginning of the 7th century, the prophet Muhammad began preaching in Mecca, founding a new religion - Islam. In 622, he moved to the oasis of Yathrib (the future Medina), which became the center of the emerging Arab state. From 632 to 661, Medina was the residence of the caliphs and the capital of the Arab Caliphate.
Spread of Islam
After the Prophet Muhammad moved to Yathrib, later called Madinat al-Nabi (City of the Prophet), in 622, an agreement was signed between Muslims led by the Prophet Muhammad and local Arab and Jewish tribes. Muhammad failed to convert local Jews to Islam, and after some time relations between Arabs and Jews became openly hostile.
In 632, the Arab Caliphate was founded with its capital in Medina, covering almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula. By the time of the reign of the second caliph Umar ibn Khattab (634), all Jews were expelled from the Hijaz. The rule dates back to this time according to which non-Muslims do not have the right to live in the Hijaz, and today in Medina and Mecca. As a result of the conquests by the 9th century, the Arab state spread over the entire Middle East, Iran, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, North Africa, as well as Southern Europe (Iberian Peninsula, islands of the Mediterranean Sea).
Arabia in the Middle Ages
In the 16th century, Turkish rule began to establish itself in Arabia. By 1574, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim II, finally conquered the Arabian Peninsula. Taking advantage of the weak political will of Sultan Mahmud I (1730-1754), the Arabs began to make their first attempts to build their own statehood. The most influential Arab families in the Hejaz at that time were the Sauds and the Rashidis.
First Saudi State
The origins of the Saudi state began in 1744 in the central region of the Arabian Peninsula. The ruler of the city of Ad-Diriyya, Muhammad ibn Saud, and the Islamic preacher Muhammad Abdul-Wahhab united to create a single powerful state. This alliance, concluded in the 18th century, marked the beginning of the Saudi dynasty that still rules today. After some time, the young state with its capital in Ad-Diriyeh came under pressure from the Ottoman Empire, concerned about the strengthening of the Arabs on its southern borders and their conquest of Mecca and Medina. In 1817, the Ottoman Sultan sent troops under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha to the Arabian Peninsula, which defeated the relatively weak army of Imam Abdullah. Thus, the First Saudi State lasted 73 years.
Second Saudi State
Despite the fact that the Turks managed to destroy the beginnings of Arab statehood, just 7 years later (in 1824) the Second Saudi State was founded with its capital in Riyadh. This state existed for 67 years and was destroyed by the long-time enemies of the Saudis - the Rashidi dynasty, originally from Hail. The Saud family was forced to flee to Kuwait.
Third Saudi State
In 1902, 22-year-old Abdel Aziz from the Saud family captured Riyadh, killing the governor from the Rashidi family. In 1904, the Rashidis turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. They brought in their troops, but this time they were defeated and left. In 1912, Abdel Aziz captured the entire Najd region. In 1920, using the material support of the British, Abdel Aziz finally defeated Rashidi. In 1925, Mecca was captured. On January 10, 1926, Abdul Aziz al-Saud was declared King of the Hejaz. A few years later, Abdel Aziz captured almost the entire Arabian Peninsula. On September 23, 1932, Najd and Hejaz were united into one state, called Saudi Arabia. Abdulaziz himself became the king of Saudi Arabia.
In March 1938, colossal oil fields were discovered in Saudi Arabia. Due to the outbreak of World War II, their development began only in 1946, and by 1949 the country already had a well-established oil industry. Oil became the source of wealth and prosperity for the state.
The first king of Saudi Arabia pursued a fairly isolationist policy. Under him, the country never became a member of the League of Nations. Before his death in 1953, he left the country only 3 times. However, in 1945, Saudi Arabia was among the founders of the UN and the Arab League.
Abdel Aziz was succeeded by his son Saud. His ill-conceived domestic policy led to a coup d'etat in the country, Saud fled to Europe, and power passed into the hands of his brother Faisal. Faisal made a huge contribution to the development of the country. Under him, the volume of oil production increased many times over, which made it possible to carry out a number of social reforms in the country and create a modern infrastructure. In 1973, by removing Saudi oil from all trading platforms, Faisal provoked an energy crisis in the West. His radicalism was not understood by everyone, and 2 years later Faisal was shot and killed by his own nephew. After his death, under King Khalid, Saudi Arabia's foreign policy became more moderate. After Khalid, the throne was inherited by his brother Fahd, and in 2005 by Abdullah.
Political structure
The government structure of Saudi Arabia is determined by the Basic Document of Government adopted in 1992. According to him, Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, ruled by the sons and grandsons of the first king, Abdul Aziz. The Koran is declared as the constitution of Saudi Arabia. The law is based on Islamic law.
The head of state is the king. Currently, Saudi Arabia is led by the son of the country's founder, King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz al-Saud. Theoretically, the king's power is limited only by Sharia law. Major government decrees are signed after consultation with the ulema (a group of religious leaders of the state) and other important members of Saudi society. All branches of government are subordinate to the king. The Crown Prince (heir apparent) is elected by the Princes' Committee.
The executive branch, in the form of the Council of Ministers, consists of the Prime Minister, the First Prime Minister and twenty ministers. All ministerial portfolios are distributed among the king's relatives and are appointed by him himself.
The legislative power is represented in the form of a kind of parliament - the Consultative Assembly (Majlis al-Shura). All 150 members (exclusively men) of the Consultative Assembly are appointed by the king for a four-year term. Political parties are banned, and some operate underground.
The judiciary is a system of religious courts where judges are appointed by the king on the nomination of the Supreme Judicial Council. The Supreme Judicial Council, in turn, consists of 12 people, also appointed by the king. The law guarantees the independence of the court. The king acts as the highest court with the right to grant amnesty.
Local elections
Even local authorities until 2005 in the country were not elected, but appointed. In 2005, the authorities decided to hold the first municipal elections in more than 30 years. Women and military personnel were excluded from voting. In addition, not the entire composition of local councils was elected, but only half. The other half is still appointed by the government. On February 10, 2005, the first stage of municipal elections took place in Riyadh. Only men aged 21 years and older were allowed to participate. The second stage took place on March 3 in five regions in the east and southwest of the country, the third on April 21 in seven regions in the north and west of the country. In the first round, all seven seats on the Riyadh council were won by candidates who were either imams of local mosques, teachers of traditional Islamic schools, or employees of Islamic charities. The same balance of power was repeated in other regions.
Law and order
Criminal law is based on Sharia. The law prohibits oral or written discussions of the existing political system. The use and trafficking of alcohol and drugs is strictly prohibited in the country. Theft is punishable by cutting off the hand. Extramarital sexual relations are punishable by flogging. Murder and some other crimes carry the death penalty. However, it is worth noting that the application of all penalties is possible only if many conditions are met. In particular, a thief can be punished only if there are at least two witnesses who witnessed the crime with their own eyes (and there is no doubt about their honesty). Also, if it is established that the person who committed the theft did it in case of extreme necessity (hunger, etc.), then this is also an excuse. In general, there is a presumption of innocence, that is, until guilt is reliably proven, a person is not considered a criminal
Unrest of 2011
On March 10, 2011, in the city of Al-Qatif, police opened fire on Shiite protesters who demanded the release of their co-religionists from prison. Three people were injured during the riots.
Rallies in Saudi Arabia have been banned by the Ministry of Interior since early March 2011 on the grounds that demonstrations and marches are contrary to Sharia law. At the same time, the police received the right to use any means to suppress illegal assemblies.
Geography of Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula. Due to the fact that the national boundaries of the state are not clearly defined, the exact area of ​​Saudi Arabia is unknown. According to official information, it is 2,217,949 km?, according to others - from 1,960,582 km? up to 2,240,000 km?. One way or another, Saudi Arabia is the 14th largest country in the world by area.
In the west of the country, along the shore of the Red Sea, the al-Hijaz mountain range stretches. In the southwest the height of the mountains reaches 3000 meters. The resort area of ​​Asir is also located there, attracting tourists with its greenery and mild climate. The east is occupied mainly by deserts. The south and southeast of Saudi Arabia is almost completely occupied by the Rub al-Khali desert, through which the border with Yemen and Oman passes.
Most of the territory of Saudi Arabia is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts, which are inhabited by nomadic Bedouin tribes. The population is concentrated around several large cities, usually in the west or east near the coast.
Relief
In terms of surface structure, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (elevation from 300-600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), weakly dissected by dry river beds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the mountains Hijaz (Arabic “barrier”) and Asir (Arabic “difficult”) with a height of 2500-3000 m (with the highest point of An-Nabi Shuaib, 3353 m), turning into coastal lowland Tihama (width from 5 to 70 km). In the Asir Mountains, the terrain varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes over the Hijaz Mountains; communication between the interior of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, stretches the rocky Al-Hamad Desert. In the northern and central parts of the country there are the largest sandy deserts: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dekhna), known for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali (Arabic for “empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Undefined borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, including Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand sq. km. Along the coast of the Persian Gulf stretches the El-Hasa lowland (up to 150 km wide) in places swampy or covered with salt marshes. The seashores are predominantly low, sandy, and slightly indented.
Climate
The climate in Saudi Arabia is extremely dry. The Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places on Earth where summer temperatures consistently exceed 50°C. However, snow falls only in the Jizan mountains in the west of the country, and not every year. The average temperature in January ranges from 8 °C to 20 °C in cities in desert areas and from 20 °C to 30 °C on the Red Sea coast. In summer, temperatures in the shade range from 35 °C to 43 °C. At night in the desert you can sometimes experience temperatures close to 0 °C, as the sand quickly releases the heat accumulated during the day.
The average annual precipitation is 100 mm. In the center and east of Saudi Arabia it rains exclusively in late winter and spring, while in the west it rains only in winter
Vegetable world
White saxaul and camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava fields, single poplars and acacias grow along the wadi beds, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs. A significant part of sandy and rocky deserts is almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the Asir Mountains there are areas of savannah where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops.
Animal world
The fauna is quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild donkey onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Birds include eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, hazel grouses, quails, and pigeons. Coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2,000 species of corals in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially prized). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government established Asir National Park, which preserves nearly extinct species such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex.
Economy
Advantages: huge oil and gas reserves and an excellent associated refining industry. Well-controlled surplus and stable current income. Large income from 2 million pilgrims to Mecca per year.
Economy
Weak sides: vocational education is underdeveloped. High subsidies for food. Imports of most consumer goods and industrial raw materials. High youth unemployment. Dependence of the country's welfare on the ruling family. Fear of instability. The reliability of the reserves has been questioned by WikiLeaks publications.
The economy of Saudi Arabia is based on the oil industry, which accounts for 45% of the country's gross domestic product. 75% of budget revenues and 90% of exports come from the export of petroleum products. Proven oil reserves amount to 260 billion barrels (24% of proven oil reserves on Earth). Moreover, unlike other oil-producing countries, in Saudi Arabia this figure is constantly increasing, thanks to the discovery of new fields. Saudi Arabia plays a key role in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, through which it regulates world oil prices.
In the 1990s, the country experienced an economic recession associated with falling oil prices and at the same time huge population growth. Because of this, GDP per capita fell from $25,000 to $7,000 over several years. In 1999, OPEC decided to sharply reduce oil production, which led to a jump in prices and helped correct the situation. In 1999, extensive privatization of electricity and telecommunications enterprises began.
In December 2005, Saudi Arabia joined the World Trade Organization.
International trade
Export - $310 billion in 2008 - oil and petroleum products.
The main buyers are the USA 18.5%, Japan 16.5%, China 10.2%, South Korea 8.6%, Singapore 4.8%.
Imports - $108 billion in 2008 - industrial equipment, food, chemical products, cars, textiles.
The main suppliers are the USA 12.4%, China 10.6%, Japan 7.8%, Germany 7.5%, Italy 4.9%, South Korea 4.7%.
Railways
Rail transport consists of several hundred kilometers of 1435 mm standard gauge railways linking Riyadh with the main ports on the Persian Gulf.
In 2005, the North-South project was launched, providing for the construction of a railway line 2,400 km long and costing over $2 billion. At the beginning of 2008, Russian Railways OJSC won a tender for the construction of a section of the North-South railway with a length of 520 km and worth $800 million. Already in May 2008, the tender results were canceled, and Russian Railways President Vladimir Yakunin called this decision political
In 2006, it was decided to build a 440-kilometer line between Mecca and Medina
Car roads
The total length of roads is 221.372 km. Of them:
With hard surface - 47.529 km.
Without hard surface - 173.843 km.
In Saudi Arabia, women (of any nationality) are prohibited from driving. This norm was adopted in 1932 as a result of a conservative interpretation of the provisions of the Koran
Air Transport
The number of airports is 208, of which 73 have concrete runways, 3 have international status.
Pipeline transport
The total length of pipe lines is 7,067 km. Of these, oil pipelines - 5,062 km, gas pipelines - 837 km, as well as 1,187 km of pipes for the transportation of liquefied gas (NGL), 212 km - for gas condensate and 69 km - for the transportation of petroleum products.
Armed forces
The Saudi Arabian Armed Forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and Aviation. In addition, the ministry is responsible for the development of the civil (along with the military) aviation sector, as well as meteorology. The post of Minister of Defense has been held by the king's brother Sultan since 1962.
There are 224,500 people serving in the kingdom's armed forces (including the national guard). Service is contractual. Foreign mercenaries are also involved in military service. Every year, 250 thousand people reach conscription age. Saudi Arabia is one of the top ten countries in terms of funding for the armed forces; in 2006, the military budget amounted to 31.255 billion US dollars - 10% of GDP (the highest among the Gulf countries). Mobilization reserves - 5.9 million people. The number of armed forces is constantly growing, so in 1990 they numbered only 90 thousand people. The main supplier of weapons for the kingdom is traditionally the United States (85% of all weapons). The country produces its own armored personnel carriers. The country is divided into 6 military districts.
Paramilitary forces

The National Guard was initially created in opposition to the regular army as the most faithful support of the monarchical regime. In the early 50s. called the "White Army". For a long time, only NG forces had the right to deploy on the territory of the main oil-bearing provinces of the country. It was recruited according to the clan principle from tribes loyal to the dynasty in the provinces of Al-Nej and Al-Hassa. At the moment, the Mujahideen tribal militia numbers only 25 thousand people. Regular units number 75 thousand people. and consist of 3 mechanized and 5 infantry brigades, as well as a ceremonial cavalry squadron. They are armed with artillery and infantry fighting vehicles, but no tanks.
The Border Guard Corps (10 50 people) in peacetime is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
Coast Guard: strength - 4.5 thousand people. has 50 patrol boats, 350 motor boats, and a royal yacht.
Security forces - 500 people.

Foreign policy and international relations
Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is focused on maintaining the kingdom's key positions on the Arabian Peninsula, among Islamic states and oil exporting states. Saudi Arabia's diplomacy protects and promotes the interests of Islam throughout the world. Despite its alliance with the West, Saudi Arabia is often criticized for being tolerant of Islamic radicalism. It is known that Saudi Arabia was one of two states that recognized the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Saudi Arabia is the homeland of the leader of the terrorist organization Al-Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, as well as many warlords and mercenary fighters who fought against federal troops in Chechnya. Many militants found refuge in this country after the end of hostilities. Complex relations are also developing with Iran, since both Saudi Arabia and Iran, being the centers of the two main branches of Islam, claim informal leadership in the Islamic world.
Saudi Arabia is a key member of organizations such as the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
In 2007, diplomatic relations were established between Saudi Arabia and the Holy See
Population
According to the 2006 census, the population of Saudi Arabia was 27.02 million, including 5.58 million foreigners. The birth rate is 29.56 (per 1000 people), the death rate is 2.62. The population of Saudi Arabia is characterized by rapid growth (1-1.5 million/year) and youth. Citizens under 14 years of age make up almost 40% of the population. Until the 60s, Saudi Arabia was populated primarily by nomads. As a result of economic growth and increased prosperity, cities began to expand, and the share of nomads decreased to only 5%. In some cities the population density is 1000 people per km².
90% of the country's citizens are ethnic Arabs, and there are also citizens of Asian and East African origin. In addition, 7 million migrants from various countries, including: India - 1.4 million, Bangladesh - 1 million, Philippines - 950,000, Pakistan - 900,000, Egypt - 750,000. 100,000 migrants from Western countries live in closed communities.
The state religion is Islam.
Education and culture
In the initial period of its existence, the Saudi state could not provide all its citizens with guarantees of education. Only the servants of mosques and Islamic schools were educated. In such schools, people learned to read and write, and also studied Islamic law. The Saudi Arabian Ministry of Education was founded in 1954. It was headed by the son of the first king, Fahd. In 1957, the kingdom's first university, named after King Saud, was founded in Riyadh. By the end of the 20th century, Saudi Arabia had established a system providing free education to all citizens, from preschool to higher education.
Today, the education system in the kingdom consists of 8 universities, over 24,000 schools and a large number of colleges and other educational institutions. More than a quarter of the state's annual budget is spent on education. In addition to free education, the government provides students with everything they need for their studies: literature and even medical care. The state also sponsors the education of its citizens in foreign universities - mainly in the USA, Great Britain, Canada, Australia, and Malaysia.
The culture of Saudi Arabia is strongly associated with Islam. Every day, five times a day, the muezzin calls devout Muslims to prayer (namaz). Serving another religion, distributing other religious literature, building churches, Buddhist temples, and synagogues is prohibited.
Islam prohibits the consumption of pork and alcohol. Traditional foods include grilled chicken, falafel, shawarma, lula kebab, kussa makhshi (stuffed zucchini), and unleavened bread - khubz. Various spices and spices are generously added to almost all dishes. Among the favorite drinks of Arabs are coffee and tea. Their drinking is often ceremonial in nature. Arabs drink tea black with the addition of various herbs. Arabic coffee is famous for its traditional strength. It is drunk in small cups, often with the addition of cardamom. Arabs drink coffee very often.
In clothing, Saudi Arabian residents adhere to national traditions and the canons of Islam, avoiding excessive frankness. Men wear long shirts made of wool or cotton (dishdasha?). The traditional headdress is gutra. In cold weather, a bisht is worn over the dishdashi - a cape made of camel hair, most often in dark colors. Women's traditional clothing is richly decorated with tribal signs, coins, beads, and threads. When leaving home, a Saudi woman is required to cover her body with an abaya and her head with a hijab. Foreign women are also required to wear an abaya (with trousers or a long dress underneath).
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The eastern parts of what is now Saudi Arabia were settled in the fourth and fifth millennium by people from southern Iraq. The Nabattine Empire was the greatest of the early empires, stretching to Damascus in the first century BC.

In the early 18th century, the Al Sauds, the current ruling dynasty of Saudi Arabia, became sheikhs in the Dirayah oasis, near modern Riyadh. In the mid-18th century, they teamed up with Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab to create Wahhabism, a religious movement harkening back to the origins of Islam, which is now the main religion of Saudi Arabia. By 1806, Wahhabi armies had captured most of what is now Saudi Arabia and southern parts of Iraq.

This situation was not supported in Constantinople, since in theory the western part of Arabia was part of the Ottoman Empire. The empire regained western Arabia in 1812, but by the end of the 19th century the Al Sauds had retreated to Kuwait, where they took refuge. From here, one of the great leaders of the Al-Sauds, Ibn Saud, using all imaginable and unimaginable means, was able to return Riyadh, and in 1925, Jeddah.

In 1939, Chevron discovered oil fields in Saudi Arabia, but when World War II began, oil production fell significantly. By the 1950s rulers earned up to $1,000,000 weekly from oil production, and by the 1960s. The country received 80% of its income from oil sales. Due to the Arab oil embargo of 1973-74. oil prices quadrupled and Saudi Arabia became something of a world leader. While the government was raking in money, Saudi Arabia began a construction boom. But oil attracted many interested countries, and Saudi Arabia's relations with its neighbors began to deteriorate sharply. The massacre of 400 Iranian hajj pilgrims in 1987 led Iran to boycott the Mecca pilgrimage for several years.

When Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990, the Arabians became nervous and asked the United States to send troops to protect Saudi Arabia. Although Arabia was not invaded, the crisis led to political changes and in 1993 the king established an advisory council whose members were appointed by the king and could comment on proposed laws.

The days of easy oil money are over, the country's population is rapidly increasing (the average Saudi woman gives birth to six children) and the kingdom is ruled by an aging King Fahd, who faces these intractable problems. In 1999, this inaccessible country hosted its first expensive tour. But still, for an ordinary traveler, getting into the country is almost impossible. Only Muslims making pilgrimages to Mecca or Medina and those lucky ones who can receive an invitation from a citizen of Saudi Arabia can count on obtaining a visa.

The roots of the state structure of the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-10th-3rd centuries, called Wahhabism.

It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud, the leader of the Anaiza tribe, who inhabited the Diriyyah region in Central Najd. Ibn Saud and Ibn Abd al-Wahhab managed to unite the tribes of Najd into a religious and political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Saudis throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad ibn Saud's son, Abd al-Aziz (r. 1765-1803), took the title of imam, which meant the unification in his hands of both secular and spiritual power.

Under his leadership, and under his son Saud (ruled 1803-1814), the Wahhabis conquered Central and Eastern Arabia, invaded Iraq, Syria and Oman, and devastated the Hijaz. In the second decade of the 19th century. they were defeated by the Pasha of Egypt Muhammad Ali, and in 1818 Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Muhammad Ali, destroyed Ed-Diriya. However, over the next few years, the Wahhabis, under the leadership of Imam Turki (ruled 1824-1834), managed to recover from defeat, found a new capital, Riyadh, near Diriyah, and restore Saudi rule over Najd and Al-Hasa.

In 1837-1840, the Wahhabis were again defeated by Muhammad Ali, but they managed to regain their position under the leadership of Turki's son, Faisal (ruled 1834-1838, 1843-1865). Over the next three decades they played a leading role in the political life of Central and Eastern Arabia. The power struggle between the Saudis allowed the Turks to capture Al-Hasa in 1871, and over the next few years the Saudis were overshadowed by the rival Rashidid dynasty from the independent emirate of Shammar.

In 1890, the Rashidids captured Riyadh and forced the Saudis to flee to remote areas and leave the country.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (reigned 1902-1953), later known as Ibn Saud, who returned from exile in 1901-1902 and restored his power in Riyadh. Later he managed to expel the Rashidids from Najd. In 1913 he drove the Turks out of Al-Hasa.

During the First World War, he managed to further strengthen his position by concluding an agreement with the government of British India in December 1915, according to which he was recognized as the ruler of Najd, Al-Hasa and the annexed territories. After the war, Ibn Saud defeated the Rashidids and annexed Shammar in 1921. A year later, he concluded a series of agreements with Great Britain that established borders with Kuwait and Iraq.

In 1924, after the liquidation of the Ottoman Empire and the proclamation of the Turkish Republic, Hussein accepted the title of Caliph of all Muslims. Accusing him of unbelief, the Ikhwan invaded the Hejaz in August of the same year and captured Mecca in October, and Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali. A year later, after the surrender of Medina and Jeddah to Ibn Saud, Ali also abdicated the throne. With the help of the Ikhwans, Asir, a territory located between the Hijaz and North Yemen, was brought under the control of Ibn Saud. In 1927, under a new treaty with Great Britain, in which, unlike the previous treaty of 1915, provisions limiting the independence of the state of Ibn Saud were omitted, he was recognized as the king of the Hejaz and the Sultan of Najd.

Five years later in 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which was recognized by world powers as an independent state.

Throughout the subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the kingdom's external relations developed ambiguously. The excesses of the Ikhwan led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from the majority Muslim government, which considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control the Wahhabis established over the holy cities and the hajj. There was mutual hostility between Ibn Saud and the Hashemite rulers of Iraq and Transjordan - the sons of Hussein, whom he overthrew. Ibn Saud’s relationship with the king of Egypt, whom he suspected of wanting to revive the caliphate and declare himself caliph, could hardly be called warm. In February 1934, Ibn Saud went to war with the Imam of Yemen over the demarcation of the Yemeni-Saudi border. Hostilities ceased after the signing of an agreement in May 1934.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California in 1933. Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden - ended in failure. Meanwhile, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company, a subsidiary of Standard Oil of California, discovered oil in Al-Hasa.

During the war, Saudi Arabia remained neutral. Subsequently, the United States received the right to build a military air base in Dhahran, in Al-Has, where the headquarters of the ARAMCO company, the former CASOKOLO, was located. At the end of the war, oil production increased significantly, and its exploration continued.

Ibn Saud died in November 1953. All subsequent rulers of Saudi Arabia were the sons of Ibn Saud.

The full scale of the changes caused by the huge revenues from oil exports appeared already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud (b. 1902). Mismanagement of the kingdom's finances and inconsistent domestic and foreign policies led to a crisis of governance in 1958, as a result of which Saud was forced to transfer full executive power to his brother Faisal.

Faisal was appointed prime minister. Under him, a permanent cabinet was formed, which was the most important innovation in the structure of power. In 1960-1962, Saud regained direct control of the government, once again taking the post of prime minister. But already in October 1964 he was removed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa, a decree of the Council of Ulema. Faisal was proclaimed king. The new king retained the post of prime minister. This practice continued under his successors.

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Saudi Arabia's relations with its Arab neighbors improved somewhat, which was a consequence of the creation of the state of Israel and the growing hostility towards it from Arab countries.

The determination of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser to remove from power any government that stood in the way of the unification of Arab countries made Saudi Arabia after 1960 his main target of attacks. Beginning in 1962, for five years, Saudi Arabia provided assistance to the deposed imam of North Yemen, while Egypt sent troops there and provided assistance to the republicans. Although the threat from Abdel Nasser diminished after the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from South Yemen in 1967 as a consequence of Egypt's defeat in the Arab-Israeli War, Saudi Arabia faced another challenge, the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen.

In the Arabian Peninsula, Faisal faced a threat from subversive organizations supported by the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen). Saudi Arabia's problems worsened after the end of British protectorate over the Gulf principalities in 1971. Before leaving the area, the British government tried to persuade the local rulers to unite into a federation and reach an agreement with Saudi Arabia on the issue of a common border.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the Soviet Union and Iraq in 1972 increased Faisal's fears and pushed him to try to unite neighboring countries into an anti-revolutionary coalition. Like the government of North Yemen (Yemen Arab Republic, YAR), where moderate Republicans came to power after 1967, Faisal supported thousands of southern Yemenis who fled after 1967 to YAR and Saudi Arabia.

After the Arab-Israeli war in October 1973, Faisal initiated the Arab oil embargo against Western countries, incl. The United States, in order to force them to pursue a more balanced policy regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict. Arab solidarity contributed to a fourfold increase in oil prices and an increase in the prosperity of Arab oil-producing states.

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews during a reception. His brother Khaled (1913-1982) ascended the throne. Due to Khaled's poor health, much of the power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd (b. 1922).

The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. After 1974, Saudi Arabia made efforts to reduce the rise in world oil prices. The Saudi government opposed the Egyptian-Israeli peace accords concluded in 1978-1979, adhering to the common Arab position that they represented a separate peace that destroyed hope for a comprehensive resolution of the Arab-Israeli differences. Saudi Arabia could not stay away from the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979.

Tensions in Saudi society were exposed in November 1979 when armed Muslim opposition fighters seized Mecca's main mosque. The mosque was liberated by Saudi troops after two weeks of fighting in which more than 200 people were killed. The armed rebellion led by Juhayman al-Otaiba represented the first open rebellion against the monarchy in the country since the founding of the third Saudi state in 1932.

Unrest also occurred among Shiites living in the eastern regions (Al-Hasa). In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced plans in early 1980 to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was not formed until 1993.

King Khaled died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother Fahd. In August 1990, shortly after Iraq's occupation of neighboring Kuwait, Fahd authorized the deployment of significant US military forces to Saudi Arabia to defend the country against the increased military threat from Iraq. A multinational force consisting of Saudi Arabia, the United States, and other Western, Arab and Muslim countries managed to oust Iraqi troops from Kuwait in early 1991 and thereby eliminate the immediate threat to Saudi Arabia. After the Gulf War, the Saudi Arabian government came under intense pressure from fundamentalists who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western, especially American, troops from the sacred land of Arabia.

Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for greater government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice.

These actions were followed by the creation in May 1993 of the Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights. However, the government soon banned this organization, and King Fahd demanded that the fundamentalists stop anti-government agitation.

It is believed that Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda was formed precisely from the meringue of these fundamentalist organizations.

The interesting history of Saudi Arabia is a vivid example of how in just a few years, a country can change beyond recognition. The Prophet Muhammad was able to make the country a cultural center, and rich oil deposits allowed the country's inhabitants to become the richest people.

The birth of Islam. Saudi Arabia

Centuries-old and interesting history of Saudi Arabia, originates back in the 2nd millennium BC. e. The kingdom is the main historical homeland of all Arab tribes. The most important and first cities of the peninsula were Mecca and Medina (Yathrib).

At the beginning of the 7th century, the history of Saudi Arabia changed forever. The world-famous prophet Muhammad appeared, preaching the new religion of Islam. Thanks to his good mentality and military training, Muhammad became one of the famous political figures in the world. In just a few years, a little-known country was able to strengthen its position and become one of the powerful, influential powers in the world, conquering vast territories of Asia and Europe in a short period of time. No wonder that Saudi culture, so original and universal.

Capital of Saudi Arabia

Modern – Riyadh, the main political and economic center of the country. The reliable date of the city's establishment is unknown. In the 19th century, it was Riyadh that became the center of unification of Arab tribes against the cruel Turkish enslavers. Perennial story The country is full of ups and downs.

Population of Saudi Arabia

According to the latest data, it is more than 30 million people. The national composition of the country is 90% Arabs, the indigenous inhabitants of the country, the remaining 10% are mainly from the closest neighboring states - Filipinos, Pakistanis, Indians, etc.

State of Saudi Arabia

The Islamic region is divided into 13 emirates (districts). About 80% of the population lives in the kingdom's major cities. About a hundred years ago, Saudi Arabia was the homeland of poor shepherds, in just one century, thanks to the discovered oil deposits, the state became one of the richest countries in the world.

Politics of Saudi Arabia

The external one is aimed at supporting other, weaker Arab states. For many years, the kingdom has actively supported Palestine, intervening with its actions in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

Language of Saudi Arabia

The official one is Arabic. For many Arabs and adherents of Islam, the Arabic language is sacred, as it was in it that the Koran, sacred to all Muslims, was revealed.

Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch), G. L Ghukasyan (Economy), V. D. Nesterkin (Armed Forces), V. S. Nechaev (Health), M. N. Suvorov (Literature), E. S. Yakushkina (Architecture and Fine Arts)Authors: N. N. Alekseeva (Nature: physical-geographical sketch), N. A. Bozhko (Nature: geology), A. V. Sedov (Historical sketch), G. G. Kosach (Historical sketch); >>

SAUDI ARABIA(Arabic: Al-Arabiya al-Saudiyah), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiyya).

General information

S.A. is a state in the South-West. Asia, on the Arabian Peninsula. It borders in the north with Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, in the east with Qatar, in the southeast with the UAE and Oman, in the south with Yemen. In the west it is washed by the Red Sea, in the east by the waters of the Persian Gulf. Pl. OK. 2.15 million km 2 (official data; according to other sources, from 1.6 to 2.4 million km 2, the borders of S.A. in the south and southeast pass through deserts and are not clearly defined). Us. 30.8 million people (2014). The capital is Riyadh. Official language – Arabic. The monetary unit is the Saudi Arabia. rial Adm.-terr. division – 13 adm. districts.

Administrative-territorial division (2013)

Administrative region	Area, thousand km 2	Population, million people	Administrative center
Asir	76,7	2,1	Abha
Oriental	672,5	4,5	Dammam (Ed-Dammam)
Jizan	11,671	1,5	Jizan
Medina	152	2	Medina
Mecca	153,1	7,7	Mecca
Najran	149,5	0,6	Najran
Tabuk	146,1	0,9	Tabuk
Hail	103,9	0,6	Hail
El Baha	9,9	0,4	El Baha
El Jawf	100,2	0,5	El Jawf
El Qasim	58	1,3	Buraidah
Al-Hudud al-Shamaliyya	111,8	0,3	Arar
Riyadh	404,2	7,5	Riyadh

S.A. – member of the UN (1945), LAS (1945), IMF (1957), IBRD (1957), OPEC (1960), GCC (Cooperation Council of the Arab States of the Persian Gulf; 1981), OIC (Organization Islamic Cooperation; 1969; until 2011 Organization of the Islamic Conference), WTO (2005).

Political system

S.A. is a unitary state. Absolute theocratic. monarchy.

Head of state, legislator. and will fulfill it. power - the king. He personifies the power of the Saudi family. The special position of this family is secured by an act of constitution. character - Basic Nizam (regulations) on power 1992. The king elects the crown prince and removes him by decree. The king can transfer part of his powers to him by decree.

Execute power is exercised by the king and the Council of Ministers headed by him.

As an advisory body under the king and the government there is an Advisory Council (AC), whose functions include the development of recommendations on socio-economic issues. development of the country, examination of draft regulations and international. agreements. The council consists of 150 members appointed by the king for 4 years.

Political there are no parties in S.A.

Nature

Shores of the Persian Hall. and Krasny M. preim. low, sandy, slightly rugged.

Relief

Plateau-like plains are widespread, gradually decreasing from 1000–1300 m in the west to 200–300 m in the east and weakly dissected by dry river valleys (wadis). To the center. parts are dominated by stratified accumulative-denudation plains, bordered on the east by a strip of cuesta hills, including Tuvaik (heights up to 1143 m, benches up to 300–400 m). So... The area is occupied by the Najd high plateau. 400–1000 m with separation mountain ranges (Jabal Shammar, Harrat Khaybar, altitudes up to 1850 m), sand, pebble and rocky deserts (Hamads, including the El Hamad Desert), wadi beds.

On horizontally lying sedimentary rocks, stratified accumulative plains are formed, overlain by loose Quaternary ones, mainly. sandy, sediments. Processes of arid denudation and accumulation are typical. Forms of aeolian relief (ridges, dunes and dune-lumpy sands) occupy vast areas in the Big Nefud, Little Nefud (Dekhna), Nafud-ed-Dakhi (Nefud-Dakhi) and Rub al-Khali deserts, where high dunes occur. up to 200 m. In the west. parts of S.A., parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, stretch the mountains of Ash-Shifa, Hijaz, Asir (up to 3032 m high - the highest in S.A.) with steep, highly dissected western. slopes and gentle eastern ones. Lava plateaus (harrats) are common. The mountains drop down in steps to the narrow (up to 70 km) coastal lowland of Tihama with sandy deserts, rocky outcrops and salt marshes. In the east along the coast of the Persian Hall. The flat Al-Hasa lowland stretches (up to 150 km wide) with rocky and sandy deserts, saline depressions (sebkhs) and wetlands.

Geological structure and minerals

C. A. is located within the north-east. parts of the Precambrian African-Arabian platform. To the west and to the center. partly the rocks of the Nubian-Arabian belt of the platform foundation protrude onto the surface - gneisses and migmatites of the Archean - Lower Proterozoic and the Upper Proterozoic complex, in which metamorphosed volcanic-sedimentary strata and granitoids predominate; several stand out. suture zones with the development of melange and ophiolite covers. In the north-east direction, the basement rocks plunge under the platform cover of the Arabian Plate - Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene terrigenous and anhydrite-carbonate (partly siliceous-carbonate) deposits, forming in the interior. areas of S.A. monoclines. B east part of the plate is the Gaza structural terrace, where a meridional system of swell-like uplifts (En-Nala and others) can be traced in a sedimentary cover up to 7 km thick. In the south there is the Rub al-Khali syneclise (precipitation thickness up to 8 km). Along the coast of the Persian Hall. Thick Neogene molasse of the Mesopotamian foredeep are developed. In the north, west and south there are Late Cenozoic continental basalts.

Main subsoil wealth - oil and natural combustible gas. Almost the entire territory of C.A. is included in Persian Gulf oil and gas basin; open several times dozens of fields, among them the largest in terms of oil reserves Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Manifa , Abqaiq . There are known deposits of ores of copper, zinc, gold, silver, lead (pyrite copper-zinc with gold and silver El-Masan, Jebel Said, Mahd-ed-Dahab; copper-zinc Xnaygiya, as well as gold El-Amar, Bulgah, etc. .). C.A. owns part of the unique Atlantis-II sulfide copper-zinc deposit with lead, silver and gold in the Red Sea axial rift depression (115 km west of Jeddah). Main Iron ore reserves are associated with the Wadi Sawawin deposit in the northwest. There are deposits of bauxite (Ez-Zabira in the north), phosphorites (in the northwest), rock salt and gypsum (the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf), pyrite, barite, native sulfur, magnesite, marble, limestone, clay, sand and others. Occurrences of tin, tungsten, rare metals and rare earth ores.

Climate

Prem. tropical, sharply continental, dry, in the north – subtropical. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. Wed. January temperatures (in Riyadh) 14 °C, July 35 °C (absolute maximum 54 °C). Frosts rarely occur in the north. The difference between night and day temperatures is significant. Precipitation almost everywhere is less than 100 mm per year, in Rub al-Khali - less than 35 mm (in the central regions mainly in spring, in the north - in winter); in the mountains - up to 400 mm per year, maximum in spring and summer. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year, in some areas. they have been missing for years. Tihama is characterized by high relative humidity. Sultry south. The Samum wind in spring and early summer often causes sandstorms and a strong increase in temperature. Winter sowing the shemal wind brings a decrease in temperature to the east. areas.

Inland waters

Almost the entire S.A. is a drainage region without permanent rivers, temporarily. watercourses form only after intense rains. The largest wadis are Es-Sirhan, Er-Rumma, Ed-Dawasir, Bisha, Najran. After rare rainfalls, wadis sometimes turn into powerful mud flows. Oases are associated with wadis.

Ch. Groundwater and groundwater play a role in the country's water supply, providing more than 95% of water intake. Shallow groundwater accumulates in loose sedimentary strata and weathering crust, Ch. arr. in the western, relatively moist mountainous part of S.A. Osn. Water reserves are associated with underground aquifers located at great depths (150–1500 m) over an area of ​​approx. 1.5 million km 2. On b. Part of the country's territory is supplied with water through artesian wells and deep wells. Groundwater extraction significantly exceeds the volume of its renewal.

Annually renewable water resources amount to 2.4 km 3, water availability is low - 928 m 3 / person. per year (2006). The annual water intake is 23.7 km 3, of which 88% is used in the village. x-ve, 9% - in municipal water supply, 3% - in industry. Partial coverage of the fresh water deficit is achieved through sea desalination. waters (S.A. is a leader in the field of seawater desalination: 1.03 km 3 per year, 2006), reuse treated wastewater for villages. farms and industrial water consumption

Soils, flora and fauna

Primitive desert soils predominate; there is no soil cover over vast areas; salt crusts are widespread. In the north, coarse-skeletal subtropical species are developed. sierozems and gray-brown soils, in depressions – solonchaks and meadow-solonchak soils.

Vegetation is predominant. tropical desert, semi-desert in the north. White saxaul, juzgun, shrub wormwood, aristida grasses and wild millet grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava plateaus, solitary acacias, prosopis grow along the wadi beds and in interdune depressions, and tamarisk grows in more saline places. ; Along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs (Sveda, Calotropis). Manna lichen is widespread. Loose sands are almost completely devoid of plants. cover. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the mountains, in the southwest, there are areas of savannas (acacia, commiphora, olive), above 2000 m evergreen shrubs are typical, from altitudes. 2500 m – Afroalpine vegetation with the participation of juniper. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grains (wheat, barley) and garden crops. Deserts and semi-deserts occupy 62% of the territory, herbaceous ecosystems and shrubs - 33%, forests - approx. 2%.

S.A. is home to 77 species of mammals (wolf, jackal, fennec fox, hyena, caracal, sand cat, wild ass onager, antelope, gazelle, hyrax, hare, etc.). There is a large population of domesticated camels (dromedaries). There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). 10 species of mammals are endangered, including the Arabian oryx (oryx), Nubian (mountain) goat, and Arabian gerbil. There are 125 species of nesting birds (larks, sandgrouses, bustards, kites, vultures, eagles, etc.), of which 13 are endangered. To the east areas - foci of locusts.

Condition and protection of the environment

For b. Particularly pasture lands are characterized by desertification processes. Wind erosion of varying intensity is widespread, and secondary soil salinization is to a lesser extent. Due to groundwater pumping, aquifers are depleted. On the coast of the Persian Hall. there is an increased risk of oil contamination.

The system of protected areas includes 128 various objects. status, including 3 national parks (Asir, Harrat, and Farasan in the archipelago of the same name), many nature reserves and reserves, as well as extensive wildlife management areas in the north of the country and in the Rub al-Khali desert. In the national In Harrat Park and the Uruk-Bani-Maarid Nature Reserve, gazelles and oryx, which were almost completely exterminated in the country, have been reintroduced.

Population

The indigenous population makes up 74.1% of us. S.A., mainly saudi arabs, as well as speakers of the South Arabian languages ​​Mahra and Shahari (0.3%). Immigrants and their descendants (including Filipinos, Punjabis, Urdus, Persians, Palestinians, Lebanese, Syrians, Egyptians, Sudanese, Somalis, Swahili) account for 25.9% (2010 census).

According to the official data (2013), out of the total number of us. 20.3 million people – citizens of S.A. (approx. 68%), approx. 9.6 million people – immigrants (approx. 32%). The population increased almost 10 times between 1950 and 2014 (3.1 million people in 1950; 5.8 in 1970; 16.1 in 1990). Natural growth of us. 15.5 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). The birth rate is 18.8 per 1000 inhabitants, the mortality rate is 3.3 per 1000 inhabitants. The fertility rate is 2.2 children per woman; baby mortality rate is 14.6 per 1000 live births. In the age structure of the population, there is a high proportion of people of working age (15–64 years) – 69.2%; the share of children (under 15 years old) is 27.6%, people over 65 years old are 3.2%. Wed. life expectancy is 74.8 years (men - 72.8, women - 76.9 years). There are 121 men for every 100 women. Wed. density of us. St. 15 people/km2 (2014; some oases have a density of more than 1000 people/km2). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main cities are located. oil and gas production areas. More than 60% of the country's territory (the main part of the desert) does not have a permanent settled population. Share of mountains us. 83% (2014). Largest cities (million people, 2010): Riyadh 5.2, Jeddah 3.4 (Makkah region), Mecca 1.5, Medina 1.1, Dammam 0.9, Al-Hofuf 0.7 (Eastern district), Taif 0.6 (Mecca district), Tabuk 0.5. Economically active us. OK. 11.3 million people (2013; including about 5.3 million – citizens of S.A.). In the employment structure, the service sector accounts for 71.3%, industry – 23.3%, p. farms – 5.4% (2013). Unemployment rate 6% (2014; among citizens of SA 11.8%). Since 1996, the government has implemented a policy of limiting the hiring of foreigners. labor force and its replacement by citizens of S.A. - so-called. Saudization of personnel (most successfully carried out in the public sector).

Religion

OK. 90% of the population are Muslims, including 85–90% are Sunnis (mainly Hanbalis), 10–15% are Shiites: Imamis, Zaydis, a significant Ismaili minority (approx. 2.5%) (2014, estimate ). Representatives of other faiths include Christians (Catholics 2.5%, Protestants 1.5%, Orthodox 0.1%), Hindus (0.6%), Bahais (0.1%). The public practice of all religions except Islam and the opening of non-Muslim temples and houses of worship are prohibited. On the territory of S.A., in the cities of Mecca and Medina, there are Ch. shrines of Islam. Pilgrimage to the shrines of S.A. is made by St. 1.4 million Muslims per year (2014).

Historical sketch

The territory of Saudi Arabia from ancient times to the first centuries AD. uh

The oldest traces of human activity (probably ca. 1.3 million years ago), dating back to the Oldowan (see. Olduvai culture), known in the north (near the city of Shuwaikhitiya) and southwest (Bir Hima, Najran region) of the modern territory. S.A.; finds from the Acheulian era are at its center. and east parts, the Middle Paleolithic - everywhere. The lack of finds from the Late Paleolithic may be due to unfavorable climatic conditions. conditions.

Since the Neolithic (ca. 8th millennium BC), connections have been recorded with the territory of the Levant, from where, apparently, there was population migration and the exchange of obsidian with the territory of Yemen, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. Petroglyphs (mainly hunting scenes) have been known since the 7th millennium. Since the 6th thousand, ties with the South have been strengthened. Mesopotamia (Ubaid culture), North-East. and South-West. Arabia.

In the Early Metal Age (from the end of the 4th millennium), monumental above-ground tombs, sanctuaries and, probably, associated anthropomorphic stone steles appeared. In the 3rd millennium, stable ties were established with Mesopotamia. Among the finds are examples of sculpture and glyptics, items made of lapis lazuli, carnelian (mainly imported from Mesopotamia, from the territory of Afghanistan, Gujarat). Coast of the Persian Hall. was part of the Dilmun civilization zone.

The oases of Hijaz, Teima (now Taima), Dedan (now El-Ula), Madyan have been continuously inhabited since the 3rd–2nd millennium. From the beginning. 1st millennium they played an important role on the “route of incense” (from the territory of Yemen to the Mediterranean), they are mentioned in Assyrian. cuneiform sources of the 8th–7th centuries, the Old Testament. From the 7th century inscriptions appear in local languages ​​using varieties of the North Arabian alphabetic script. In 550, a number of oases were conquered by the Babylonian king Nabonidus, who made Teima his residence for 10 years. At the site of Kraia (probably the capital of Teima), a “stele of Nabonidus” was found with an inscription in Akkadian. and the image of the king in front of the symbols of the Babylonian gods Sin, Shamash, Ishtar. Other cuneiform texts mentioning Nabonidus and rock inscriptions containing greetings to the “king of Babylon” are also known from Teima. In the 5th century these oases became dependent on Achaemenid states. In the 4th–1st centuries. important political The power was the state of Lihyan with its capital Dedan (about 10 giant stone statues of its rulers have been preserved). From the 2nd century. BC e. part of the North-West Arabia was part of Nabatean kingdom; Hegra (now Madain Salih) was a major city; numerous people are associated with it. rock tombs (analogues in Petra). In 106 n. e. The Nabataean kingdom became part of Rome. empires.

The central and southwestern parts of the modern territory. S.A. belonged to the South civilization. Arabia; one of its centers was in the Najran oasis (first mentioned around 700). The center of the Mukhaamir tribal union was located in the city of Raghmat, from the 6th century. The Amir tribe began to play a dominant role in the oasis. After a series of wars, Najran became dependent on the South Arabian kingdom of Ma'in. Raghmata is mentioned among the cities conquered by the Romans during the campaign of Aelius Gallus in “Happy Arabia” in 25/24 BC. e. In the 1st–5th centuries. n. e. Najran was under the rule of the state of Saba and Himyarite kingdom .

Oasis of Qaryat al-Fau (Qaryat al-Fau; mentioned from the late 4th century BC) in the north-west. border of the Rub al-Khali desert from the first centuries AD. e. was the center of the Kinda tribal union and a point on the “path of incense” left in the beginning. 4th century, probably due to the drying up of fresh water sources. Residential areas, a market, sanctuaries (including those of the supreme god Kahl), and a necropolis were excavated here. Inscriptions in Dedan, Nabatean, Sabaean languages, coins (including local mintage), bronze, stone, terracotta images of Greek. and Greco-Egyptian. gods, Sabaean funerary sculpture, frescoes, glassware, semi-precious stones, gold, silver and other finds demonstrate a combination of local and Western Asian, Egyptian, Hellenistic, Roman. traditions.

With the settlement of Saj near the Persian Hall. identify the city of Guerra as an important point in the incense trade system. Finds (including glass and metal dishes, gold and silver jewelry, locally minted coins) indicate the strong influence of Hellenism. A tomb dating from the 1st–2nd centuries was excavated in Ain Javan (north of the modern city of El-Qatif). with numerous jewelry.

Territory of Saudi Arabia in the 4th – early 7th centuries

So... influence on the situation on the Arabian Peninsula in the 4th–7th centuries. provided by external forces, the most important of which were the rival Byzantium and Sasanian Iran. Their confrontation turned the Arabic-speaking states that arose on the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula or within its borders into satellites of one or another of these powers. If formed in 380 and existed until 611 in South. Mesopotamia Lakhmid kingdom, which extended its possessions up to Al-Hasy and officially confessed Nestorianism, was a vassal of Iran, then arose in the East. Palestine Ghassanid kingdom (529–636), which included the north of the Hejaz and adhered to Monophysitism, was a vassal of Byzantium.

One of the forms of external influence on the intra-Arabian situation was the spread of Judaism and Christianity. This impact was felt especially strongly in the south of the peninsula, where, under the influence of Christianized Ethiopia, the local pantheon of deities was unified, which contributed to the emergence of the idea of ​​a single ruler of Heaven and Earth - Rahmanan (his name, modified in accordance with the phonetics of Northern Arabic dialects, later became in the form Rahman is one of the epithets of Allah). At the same time, Judaism penetrated geographically deeper into Arabia than Christianity. If the latter became widespread in the peripheral regions of the peninsula (Lakhmid and Ghassanid kingdoms), then it means. Jewish colonies existed in the oases of the Hijaz (including Medina) and Najd.

However b. parts of the territory of modern times. S.A. still remained pagan. The local pantheon included both male and female deities. Everyday practice was the veneration of stones, trees, stars and celestial phenomena, good and evil spirits as intermediaries between gods and people. Temples and sanctuaries were dedicated to the gods, one of which was the Meccan Kaaba, which gradually turned into a recognized cult center with rituals developing around it, which later became part of the Islamic ritual. The unsuccessful campaign against Mecca in 570 Ethiopians gave this center a special status as a “God-saved” one. King Abraha.

Arabian Peninsula in the 7th–17th century

The prophetic mission of Muhammad, which began in 603–605, transformed politics. geography of the Arabian Peninsula. Its result was the formation of an early Islamic state, which included the entire territory of modern times. Saud. Arabia.

The non-recognition of Muhammad as the Prophet by the Meccan Quraysh forced him to emigrate to Yathrib (now Medina). The Muslim system developed there. dogmatics and rituals (including due to the confrontation with local Jewish tribes), as well as the foundations of a new statehood, family ethics and morality based on the norms of this system, the formation of Muslims began. Ummah. While in Medina, Muhammad made his first conquests, which were limited to the territories neighboring this city. Strengthening your own authority as religions. leader, military leader and politician allowed Muhammad in Jan. 630 return victoriously to Mecca, which recognized his power. By 632 all tribes are centered. Arabia, as well as the population of Asir, Najran and Yemen, converted to Islam, which they contributed to as a soldier. threats and diplomacy. the efforts of its founder. However, Muhammad's first attempts to introduce zakat and sadaqa for the population of the territories under his control caused uprisings. Disputes between the Prophet's closest companions and relatives, which began after his death in 632, ended with the election of Abu Bekr as caliph. He managed to break the resistance of the rebels and pacify the rebel tribes, and the campaign he organized against Byzantium was successful. But his election led to the emergence of the first fault lines within Muslims. community. The preconditions for Shiism have arisen - supporters Ali ibn Abi Talib believed that it was he who should succeed Muhammad, and not Abu Bekr, whom they considered a usurper.

After the death of Abu Bekr, the caliphs were Omar ibn al-Khattab and then Osman ibn al-Affan. The murder of the latter in 656 by opponents of strengthening the role of his clan in the life of the Caliphate marked the beginning of fitna - a turmoil that divided Muslims into Shiites, Kharijites and Sunnis. The power of Ali ibn Abi Talib, who became the new caliph, was immediately challenged by the governor of Syria Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan. His son Hassan, who became caliph after the death of Ali ibn Abi Talib, renounced the title in favor of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, as a result of which power in the Caliphate passed from the companions and relatives of Muhammad to the Umayyads who ruled in Damascus. Political Muslim center state became the capital of Syria. After the transfer of power in the Caliphate in 747 to the Abbasids, the political center. life of the Islamic world moved to Baghdad. Mecca retained only the status of a religion. center, and the Arabian Peninsula became the periphery of a huge state. education.

The protracted process of disintegration of the Caliphate had a significant impact. influence on politics situation on the Arabian Peninsula. The emergence in 899 of the Qarmatian state in Bahrain, which included Al-Hasa, made possible the further expansion of representatives of this movement in the direction of the Hijaz. In 930 the Qarmatians attacked Mecca and stole ch. the object of worship is the “black stone” (returned only in 952).

After Ahmed ibn Tulun came to power in Egypt in 858, the Tulunid state arose, which also included the Hijaz. With the conquest of Egypt in 969 by the Fatimids, the Hijaz entered their state, in 1171 - into the state of the Ayyubids who replaced the Fatimids, in 1250 - into Mamluk Sultanate. After the defeat of the latter in 1516 by Sultan Selim I the Terrible (1512–20), Hijaz and Asir were included in Ottoman Empire. In 1638, Ottoman power also extended to Al-Hasa. Ottoman expansion did not affect the semi-desert interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula, however, the rulers of the oases and tribal leaders of this territory, solving the problems of their own. rise or maintain power, repeatedly turned to the Porte for help.

Arabia in the 18th – late 19th centuries. First Saudi states

If in Hijaz, which became part of the Ottoman Empire, Hanafi Islam became the dominant Sunni legal school (see Hanafis), then in Najd this means. To the extent possible, the Hanbali madhhab (comprehension) of Sunnism has become established (see Hanbali). This legal school required strict adherence to religions. dogmas and live practically the way the Prophet and his companions lived. In the 1st half. 18th century these ideas were developed Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, who became the spiritual mentor of the residents of the small town of Uyayna in Najd. The activities of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab displeased the ruler of Uyayna. In 1744/45, the preacher was forced to move to the town of Ed-Diriya (now within the administrative boundaries of Greater Riyadh). The migration of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his alliance with the emir of Ed-Diriyah Muhammad ibn Saud (1726/27–1765) is considered the beginning of the Saud. statehood. This union later became the basis for interaction between the descendants of the emir - the Saudis and the teachers of the law from the Al ash-Sheikh family (Al Sheikh, Ali-sh-Sheikh) - the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab.

K con. 1780s the rulers of Ed-Diriya established dominance over the entire territory of Najd. Int. discord in Al-Hasa made it easier for the Saudis. expansion towards the coast of the Persian Gulf. Despite the resistance of local tribes, in the 1st half. 1790s Al-Hasa became part of the Saudi Arabia. possessions. An attempt by the Ottoman Vali of Basra to restore Ottoman rule in Al-Hasa ended in the summer of 1797 with the invasion of the tribes subordinate to the ruler of Ed-Diriya into the territory of Iraq. In the spring of 1802 they captured and plundered the largest Iraq. Shiite center of Karbala. From the beginning 1790s Saudi Arabia began. raids on Hejaz. In 1805, with the establishment of Saudi control over Medina and the ports of the Red Sea, the Hijaz became part of their possessions. Saudi power was also consolidated in Asir, from where attempts were made to penetrate Yemen. In the beginning. 19th century one of the directions of Saudi Arabia. expansion became Muscat and Hadhramaut, as well as the territory of the current states of the Persian Hall zone. (including the Bahrain archipelago). However, agreements concluded by local rulers with Great Britain, for which this area played an important role in ensuring the security of communications with British India, put a limit on her. The Saudis were forced to abandon the continuation of expansion due to the landing of Egyptian troops in Hijaz in 1811. ruler Muhammad Ali .

Establishment of the Saud. dominion over Mecca and Medina, which had previously been under Ottoman jurisdiction, dealt a blow to the prestige of the Istanbul sultans and caliphs, who were unable to ensure the security of the hajj. To restore its previous position, the Porte took advantage of Muhammad Ali's interest in returning Egypt's trade monopoly in the Red Sea area. Egypt troops after landing in Hejaz Yanbu (Yanbu el-Bahr), despite initial setbacks, gradually managed to develop an offensive in the direction of the interior. areas of the Arabian Peninsula and on Sept. 1818 take and destroy Ed-Diriya. First Saudi the state fell, b. h. Saudi nobles and members of the Al ash-Sheikh family were taken to Egypt.

Egypt The occupation of Najd, accompanied by looting, violence and the revival of tribal anarchy, was short-lived. Member who escaped from the Egyptians. Saudi dynasty Turki ibn Abdallah (1821–34) led the military. Egyptian resistance occupation. He was supported by the heads of the tribes and the Hanbali ulema. Leaving the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, the new emir made Riyadh his capital and consistently expanded the scope of his possessions in the center of Najd, creating the second Saudi state. In 1830 he restored the Saudi Arabia. power in Al-Hasa, forced the Saudis to admit. suzerainty of the ruler of Bahrain and resumed expansion into Oman.

Drought con. 1820s and repeated outbreaks of cholera worsened the Saudi situation. emirate. In 1834, Turki ibn Abdallah was killed by a relative who had established himself in Riyadh. The coming to power in the same year of Turki's son Faisal did not put an end to internal affairs. discord and strife in the emirate. The situation was also seriously destabilized by Muhammad Ali's new attempts to assert his power over the Arabian Peninsula. In 1837 Egypt. troops entered the capital of the emirate, reoccupied Najd and captured Emir Faisal ibn Turki, who was sent to Cairo in 1838. Power in Riyadh passed to Khalid ibn Saud, who was replaced in 1841 by Abdallah ibn Sunayan.

In 1840 Egypt. The army was evacuated under British pressure. In 1843, Faisal ibn Turki returned to his homeland and restored his power in Riyadh. Saud. expansion towards Al-Hasa and Qassem territory resumed. In the beginning. 1860s Saudi power is completely restored in the west of Najd. The death of Faisal ibn Turki in 1865 again destabilized the emirate. He was succeeded by his son Abdallah ibn Faisal [emir in Dec. 1865 – Jan. 1873 (with a break), March 1876–1889] tried to subjugate Oman and Bahrain, but encountered opposition from the British. Faisal's other son, Saud ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1873 - Jan. 1875), who challenged Abdallah's right to power, established himself in Al-Has. In the spring of 1871 he marched on Riyadh and plundered the city. Subsequently, the rest of Faisal’s sons also joined the struggle for power, seeking help from local rulers and external forces - Abd ar-Rahman ibn Faisal (emir in Jan. 1875 - Jan. 1876) and Muhammad ibn Faisal. Busy internal Due to the struggle, the Saudis missed the rise in the west of Najd of the Jebel Shammar emirate with the capital of Hail, led by the Rashidid dynasty, which became allies of the Ottoman Empire. As a result, to ser. 1870s Saudi power extended only to Riyadh. In 1887, the Riyadh Emirate ceased to exist and became part of Jebel Shammar. The Saudi family, including Prince Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd ar-Rahman (Ibn Saud), born in 1880, was forced into exile.

The emergence and development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in the 1st half of the 20th century

In Jan. 1902, having made a campaign from Kuwait (the last place of exile of the Saudi family), Ibn Saud captured Riyadh. After taking the city, he renewed the agreement with the Hanbali jurists. Having strengthened Riyadh, Ibn Saud began to expand the borders of the territory under his control. Great Britain, interested in weakening Ottoman influence in the Arabian Peninsula, supported Ibn Saud, which allowed him to establish control over part of Jebel Shammar. In 1911, Ibn Saud secured the consent of Great Britain to join Al-Hasa, which was at that time under Turkish rule, as part of his possessions. In 1913 this territory came under the Saudis. jurisdiction.

Ibn Saud attached great importance to strengthening his influence in Najd. To do this, he used the Ikhwan movement that developed in this region and was inspired by Hanbali teachers. The goal of the latter was to transfer some of the Bedouins to settle in specially created settlements - hijras, where members of the movement devoted themselves to agriculture and the study of religion in its Wahhabi version. Those who moved to the hijras accepted the obligation to be loyal to other brothers in the movement, to obey the emir-imam, and not to maintain contacts with “polytheists” - Europeans and residents of the countries they subordinated. The first hijra - El-Artawiya arose in the 1st half. 1913, by 1929 there were already 120 hijras throughout the entire territory of Najd. The Ikhwans formed the striking force of Ibn Saud's army.

The First World War changed the balance of power on the Arabian Peninsula. The most important event in this region was the anti-Turkish uprising inspired by Great Britain (the so-called Great Arab Revolution in Hejaz under the leadership of the Sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi), which began in June 1916 and led to the emergence of the sovereign Kingdom of Hejaz, which was recognized League of Nations. Ibn Saud, despite the British. pressure, did not take part in the uprising, nor did he follow the calls of the British. agents start military. actions against Jebel Shammar, which remained loyal to the Ottoman Empire. One of the results of the 1st World War was the transformation of the status of Asir. Muhammad al-Idrisi, the emir of this region, acted on the side of Great Britain during the war and enlisted the support of the British. resident in Aden and expelled the Turks from that means. parts of the territory under his control. Until 1923, Asir remained political. independence under supervision Idrisid dynasty.

In the 1920s Ibn Saud began the unification of lands previously subject to the emirs of Ed-Diriya. Jebel Shammar was the first to fall, losing its brit. support and weakened by infighting in the Rashidid family. In the fall of 1921, its capital Hail was occupied by Ikhwan troops. Thus, the entire center came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of the Arabian Peninsula, Nejd became the leading state in the region, and its ruler became the sultan. Lack of a fixed border between Najd and Iraq, Najd and Transjordan (Brit. mandate territories), as well as Najd and Kuwait (British protectorate), which allowed Ibn Saud’s troops to penetrate their territory under the pretext of fighting “polytheists,” prompted Great Britain to raise the issue of border demarcation. On Nov. 1921 Anglo-Nejdi protocols were signed, establishing the borders of Najd with Iraq (finally determined in October 1925) and Kuwait, in October. 1925 – agreement on the Najd-Transjordan border.

In Jan. 1923 The north came under the rule of Ibn Saud. part of Asir from the city of Abha, which became Saud. protectorate On Sept. In 1924, the Ikhwans captured and plundered Et-Taif, and in October of the same year, Mecca, where they began to destroy the domes over the graves of the Prophet’s companions. The attempt of the Hijaz nobility to pacify Ibn Saud by removing Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi from power and enthroning his son Ali was unsuccessful. On Nov. 1925 Medina submitted to Ibn Saud, and Jeddah in December of the same year. Great Britain actually recognized the results of the Saudi Arabia. aggression. In 1926, at the World Muslim Festival held in Mecca. Congress, Ibn Saud achieved recognition of his power over the Hejaz, which allowed him to acquire the titles of king and Servant of the Two Noble Holy Mosques, and his state became known as the Sultanate of Najd, the Kingdom of Hejaz and its annexed territories. In Feb. In 1926, it was officially recognized by the USSR, which became the first power to establish diplomatic relations with Ibn Saud. relationships. The process of unification of the state was completed in 1932–34, when it received the modern one. name – Kingdom of Saud. Arabia, Asir was finally included in its composition and, as a result of the Saudi-Yemen war, the north was included. part of formerly Yemeni Najran.

Maintaining territorial integrity also relates. internal The stability of the new state was achieved through the power of the Ikhwans, as well as through the spread of the Wahhabi interpretation of the Hanbali madhhab. The Hanbali ulema, who developed the principle of devotion to the supporter of the “true faith,” justified power based on violence. In the beginning. 1925 The League for the Promotion of Virtue and the Condemnation of Sin (LPDOG), financed by Ibn Saud, arose in Riyadh. On Sept. 1926 its branch was created in Mecca, thereby spreading the practice of unconditional submission to Divine law in its Hanbali interpretation to the Hejaz (then to the whole country). This practice was based on the Najdi tradition, which required the theologian to monitor the implementation of Sharia norms in the sphere of religions. rituals and morals, as well as eradicate political. dissent.

The leading role in SA was played by the Hejaz, whose viceroy was Ibn Saud’s son, Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. The first Sauds arose in Hijaz. governments. institutions (the management experience of the Ottoman and Hashemite times was used). Until the end 1950s actual the capital of the state was Mecca (Riyadh remained the seat of the Najdi nobility and religious dignitaries). In Aug. 1926 were adopted Basic. provisions of the Kingdom of Hejaz, which determined the status of the viceroy, state. bodies, the Council of Ministers, as well as the Advisory Council - a kind of parliamentary assembly. The need for modern army, equipped with the latest military. technology, dictated the need to resolve the personnel issue. Personnel for the army were trained both abroad and in technical schools created in S.A. schools.

“Conservative modernization” of S.A. became the reason for the first appearance of the opposition, represented by Ibn Saud’s former allies – the Ikhwans, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi Hanbalism. The list of accusations against the ruler they compiled in 1926 mentioned “unacceptable” contacts of his sons with diplomatic officials. agents of Great Britain, refusal to evict Shiites from the oases of the coast of the Persian Gulf, the operation of secular laws in the Hijaz. The revolt of the Ikhwans, who declared jihad against the ruler, was suppressed only in 1929.

Until the end 1930s basic The sources of revenue for the SA budget remained the Hajj and transfers from other Muslims. countries funds from the use of waqf. The decrease in the number of pilgrims (especially during the years of the global economic crisis of 1929–33), as well as the irregularity of the receipt of waqf contributions, complicated the financial situation of S.A. This prompted Ibn Saud to meet the requests of the Amer. oil monopolies, including Standard Oil Co. of California” (“Socal”), granting them the right to explore oil fields in the territory of Al-Hasa (oil was discovered in neighboring Bahrain in 1932). Ibn Saud hoped that this would not only replenish the budget, but also weaken the British. influence on the Arabian Peninsula. In 1933, an agreement was signed to grant Socal a concession for oil exploration in S.A. In November. 1933 the concession was transferred to Socal's subsidiary, California-Arabian Standard Oil Co. (in January 1944 renamed Arabian American Oil Company - Aramco). The concession agreement provided for the provision by S.A. of loans, annual payments, rent and certain payments for each ton of oil produced after identifying its commercial properties. reserves (all payments had to be made in gold), the construction of an oil refinery and free provision of gasoline and kerosene to S.A. In response, the Saudis the government exempted the company and its enterprises from taxes and customs duties. First Saud. commercial oil quantities were discovered in 1938, the concession zone was expanded, and the concession itself was extended for up to 60 years.

At the initial stage of World War II, S.A. pursued a policy of neutrality, maintaining relations with both Great Britain and Germany and Italy, which were considered by Ibn Saud as a counterweight to the British. politics. However, later, under the influence primarily of the United States, which expanded oil production in SA and provided it with significant assistance, including military assistance, the Saudis. the government changed its position. In 1940 it broke off diplomatic relations. relations with Italy, in Sept. 1941 – with Germany. On 2/14/1945, at a meeting between Ibn Saud and US President F.D. Roosevelt on board the cruiser Quincy in the Suez Canal, an agreement was reached on the free use of Saud. ports by US and UK ships, as well as the creation of an American base. Air Force on a 5-year lease from Saudi Arabia. territory in exchange for guarantees to prevent the occupation of S.A. by troops of countries anti-Hitler coalition and recognition by the Saudis. independence. In March 1945, S.A. declared war on Germany and Italy, which allowed it to become one of the founding members United Organizations Nations. Having initially taken a cautious position regarding the process of creation that began in 1944 Arab League, S.A. joined this organization in March 1945.

Saudi Arabia in the 1950s–90s

Ibn Saud died on November 9, 1953. His heir was Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz, who appointed his predecessor. Council of Ministers and Crown Prince Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz. This led to the emergence of dual power in the country. The situation was aggravated by what was happening in S.A. and in the Arab world in general. world social and political. changes. Transformation of the previously patriarchal Saud. society also affected Shiite circles, but was not accompanied by an increase in their role in the life of the state. Shiite entrepreneurship was limited to the lower levels of business; there were no Shiite teachers or Shiite religionists in schools and universities. rituals remained prohibited, Shiite youth could not join the army and police. All this, as well as the persecution of the Saudis. authorities of workers' organizations and the harsh suppression of strikes pushed Shiite youth to join underground organizations. In 1953, strikes of oil workers, inspired by illegal trade unions and strike committees created by Shiites, broke out in Al-Hasa. In their wake, the National Front arose in the same year. reforms (FNR; since April 1958 National Liberation Front, FNL), which demanded “to liberate the country from imperialist. domination”, introduce a constitution, provide social rights to women, improve the situation of peasants and workers, and abolish slavery.

The spread of the ideas of pan-Arabism and the increasingly acute need for changes in society and politics. and economical The life of the country led to an aggravation of contradictions in the Saudi family, which resulted in an open confrontation between the king and the crown prince (initially supported by the FPR), who sought to take the throne. In May 1958, Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz was forced to issue a decree empowering the CM to fully implement it. authorities. Nevertheless, contradictions in the ruling family continued to deepen. A group of young princes (the so-called free princes) led by Talal ibn Abd al-Aziz established relations with G. A. Nasser and demanded that a constitution be introduced in the country. reform, thereby hoping to gain access to power. In 1962 the “free princes” emigrated to Egypt. What happened on Sept. 1962 anti-monarchist. The revolution in Yemen (SA supported the royalists, Egypt supported the Republicans) contributed to a certain consolidation of the Saudis. At the end of Oct. 1962 Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz announced a new government program. It declared its intention to proclaim the “basic law of government”, based on the Koran and Sunnah, to “raise the social level of the nation”, to introduce free education and medical care. service, strengthen government regulate the economy, abolish slavery. Although the program was never implemented, it reflected a desire to take into account the demands made by the "free princes".

At the beginning of Nov. 1964 Saud ibn Abd al-Aziz is finally removed from power. Theologians have published special a fatwa legitimizing what happened. This contributed to an even greater strengthening of the influence of the ulema. The staff of the LPDOG and its funding have increased. Ulema were introduced into the cassation courts. The adoption of the Labor Law in 1968 became possible only after the Supreme Mufti recognized it as complying with Sharia.

The primary task of Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz, who came to power, was to resolve the situation in Yemen and achieve mutual understanding with G. A. Nasser. However, direct Saudi-Egyptian relations initiated by the new king. Negotiations on Yemen did not bring results until 1967. Egypt's defeat by Israel in the June War of 1967 (see Arab-Israeli wars) changed the balance of power in the region. At the Aug.-Sept. 1967 at the Arab League summit in Khartoum, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz and Nasser signed an agreement on a peace settlement in Yemen, which provided for the withdrawal of Egypt from this country. troops. The decisions of the Khartoum summit testified to the growing influence of SA, which was turning into a leading Arab power. peace. At the insistence of S.A., a common position of the Arab League on Israel was developed, which provided for the refusal of peace negotiations with it until the complete withdrawal of Israeli troops from the occupied Arab countries. territories. SA became the largest financial donor to Egypt, Syria and Jordan.

Adopted by Great Britain in Jan. The 1968 decision to withdraw troops from the territories “east of Suez,” which presupposed the independence of the emirates of Treaty Oman, Bahrain and Qatar, strengthened S.A.’s position in the Persian Gulf zone. This region was acquired by the Saudis. foreign policy priority and became a place of confrontation between S.A. Iran. Strengthening international SA's influence allowed the Saudis to put forward the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” as an alternative to secular pan-Arabism. On Sept. 1969 in Rabat at a meeting of heads of state and government of 25 Muslims, held on the initiative of S.A. and Morocco. countries announced the creation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (since 2011 Organization of Islamic Cooperation). Coming to power in Egypt in 1970 after the death of Nasser, who was the main figure. a conductor of the ideas of pan-Arabism, A. Sadat expanded the sphere of the Saudi-Egyptian. political and economical interactions.

25.3.1975, while receiving min. Kuwait oil industry, Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz was killed by his cousin Faisal ibn Musaid. On the same day in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. 11/20/1979 religious group. opponents of the government from among the young employees of the LPDOG, led by Juhayman al-Uteibi, who appealed to the “purity” of Wahhabi dogma, captured Ch. Mecca mosque. 12/4/1979 Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz with the approval of the highest religions. The saud gave the order to the dignitaries. security service take Ch. the mosque is stormed. The action in Mecca coincided with the beginning of new Shiite unrest in Al-Hasa. Their spiritual leaders, led by Sheikh Hassan al-Saffar, initiated public speeches under slogans of support Islamic Revolution in Iran 1979, termination of supplies to Saudi Arabia. oil in the USA and the creation of the so-called. Islamic Republic of Al Hasa.

These events prompted the Saudis. the government to take steps to strengthen the position of the existing regime. One of the measures was the creation among young people, under the leadership of theologians, of circles and groups for the study of Wahhabi dogma (the participants in these circles later became mujahideen in Afghanistan, as well as in Kashmir, Tajikistan, in the North. Caucasus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo). In the sphere of foreign policy, a course was taken towards the unification of the Arabs. monarchies in the face of the threats that Iran posed for the states of the region. revolution and Iran–Iraq War 1980–88. This was expressed in the creation of 5/25/1981 Gulf Cooperation Council. In an effort to counteract Palestinian radicals, SA at the Arab League summit in Fez in 1982 put forward a plan for a Middle East peace settlement (the so-called Fahd plan), which for the first time outlined the possibility of pan-Arab recognition of Israel.

In June 1982, Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz died in Saudi Arabia. The throne was erected by Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz. The years of his reign became an important milestone in the history of the country - a time of overcoming internal. and external challenges and the beginning of economic and political modernization. In 1988, Aramco became the property of S.A. (became known as Saudi Aramco), which significantly expanded the financial capabilities of the state. The creation of modern technology began in the country. infrastructure: construction of a petrochemical complex. enterprises in Al-Jubail and Yanbu al-Bahr, modern networks. mor. ports, highways and airports. There has been a turn towards the “Saudization” of socio-economics. spheres - in industry, p. x-ve, the healthcare and education systems began to increasingly use national. labor force. To Saudi Arabia A new educated class emerged in society and began to play an important role in politics. After 1985 Saudi Arabia the authorities began to pursue a course of “cautious openness” towards the Shiite population of the East. province (Al-Hasy). The place of the previous administrators (natives from Najd) was taken by Shiites - graduates of universities in the region. Shiites were included in the management of industrial enterprises under construction. complexes. Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz granted amnesty to the participants in the 1979 unrest and announced his renunciation of the practice of discrimination against Shiites, including the removal of anti-Shiite texts from school textbooks.

Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz continued his predecessor’s course of increasing the role of SA in resolving regional conflicts, primarily in the Middle East. Saud. the government contributed to the cessation of civil war in Lebanon. 10/23/1989 in Taif on the Lebanese side. conflict signed a peace agreement. At the same time, in Afghanistan, S.A. actively supported the forces fighting against the Owls. troops, including the Taliban movement (SA presented the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan in 1988 as a victory for the “Islamic solidarity” it promoted). During Kuwait crisis 1990–91 S.A., fearing possible aggression from the Saddam Hussein regime and loss of dominance in the GCC, turned to the United States for help, provided its territory for the deployment of forces of the anti-Iraqi coalition, and allocated financial resources for the war. operations against Iraq. Saud. troops, as well as units of the GCC countries, took part in the liberation of Kuwait (see. "Desert Storm" 1991). After the liquidation of the Kuwait crisis, S.A. was actively involved in the Madrid peace process, one of the results of which was the adoption of the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles and the creation in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West. banks of the river Jordan Palestinian National Authority. Perestroika in the USSR and the busy Sov. leadership's position during the Kuwait crisis created the preconditions for the resumption of diplomatic relations in 1991. relations between the two countries (were frozen in 1938).

The Kuwait crisis pushed the Saudis. government to carry out political reforms. In 1992, 4 constitutions were introduced. Act: Main. the law of government, the Law on the Advisory Council, the Law on the Administration of Provinces and the Law on the Council of Ministers, which created the preconditions for the transition to a “parliamentary monarchy”, the principle of separation of powers and the development of the foundations of regional self-government.

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

After the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, S.A. broke off diplomatic relations. relations with afg. by the Taliban government, deprived Saudi Arabia. citizenship of W. bin Laden and joined the international. anti-terrorism coalition that sent troops to Afghanistan. In 2003, S.A. criticized the US intention to carry out military operations. strike on Iraq, considering it possible to resolve differences with the regime of S. Hussein political. methods. However, later S.A. joined the anti-Iraqi coalition, and after the overthrow of the Iraqi government, it took part in the occupation and reconstruction of this country.

In connection with the death of Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz in Saudi Arabia. Crown Prince Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne (August 1, 2005). Under him, on October 19, 2006, the Law on Oath-taking was adopted. He finally regulated the procedure for appointing an heir to the throne and prescribed obligations. approval of his candidacy by representatives of all factions of the Saudi family and swearing an oath of allegiance to him. In Oct. In 2011 and June 2012, this law was put into practice when Naef ibn Abd al-Aziz (died in the summer of 2012) and Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz were appointed heirs to the throne, respectively. In an effort to give greater stability to the regime, on March 27, 2014, Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz appointed Muqrin ibn Abd al-Aziz to the newly created post of heir to the throne. This decision was caused by the health of Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz and was aimed at maintaining the continuity of the succession of Ibn Saud's sons at the top of politics. authorities.

During the reign of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz in 2005, the composition of the Constitutional Court was expanded. The number of its appointed members increased from 60 to 150 people. They began to represent all regions and religious groups of the country. In 2010, the Constitutional Court was given the power to legislate. initiatives. In Feb. In 2013, a “female faction” appeared in it (30 women were introduced into the Constitutional Court while maintaining its previous number). In accordance with the king's decree, starting from 2016, women will be able to participate in municipal elections. The introduction of women into the Constitutional Court was preceded by initiatives aimed at expanding their participation in society. life and their legal emancipation. Saud. women began to receive identity cards, be employed in ministries and departments, occupy positions of rectors of “units for women”, and be elected to the governing bodies of trade and industry. chambers, societies associations, work in the “women’s departments” of large stores. The country is actively discussing the issue of further expanding the rights of women, including the lifting of the ban on women driving cars.

An important place in the internal The policy of Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz was focused on weakening the influence of the ulema on Saudi Arabia. society and state. The sphere of female education was removed from the jurisdiction of the corps of teachers, transferred to the Ministry of Education, the Court of Cassation came under the auspices of the monarch (2007), as a result of which the state gained full control over Sharia legal proceedings, and the codification of Hanbali law began to be carried out. In Feb. 2009 Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz reformed the Council of Supreme Ulema (appointments to it are completely controlled by the authorities), introducing theologians representing non-Hanbali Sunni legal schools into its composition. Thus they received an official. recognition in S.A. In the summer of 2014, a representative of the Ismaili community was added to the Council of Ministers, who took the post of Minister of Constitutional Court Affairs.

S.A. did not experience the shocks of the so-called period. Arab. spring, although under the influence of events in neighboring countries, domestic politics intensified in S.A. life, a petition movement developed, whose participants demanded the deepening of the constitution. reforms and the introduction of a “parliamentary monarchy” in the country, and an attempt was made to create the Islamic Party of the Nation. S.A. led the GCC initiative aimed at achieving political. changes in Yemen peacefully, thereby preventing weapons. confrontation between government and opposition. Further, condemning the state carried out in this country by the al-Houthi Movement. coup, S.A. contributed to the development of a unified position of the GCC, which qualified the al-Houthi Movement as “terrorist.” org-tion” and demanded the restoration of the constitution. order in Yemen. S.A. supported the actions of the Libyan opposition to overthrow the regime of M. Gaddafi in 2011, while adhering to a policy of non-interference in the intra-Libyan conflict that began in 2014. In March 2011, Saudi Arabia leadership, based on the request of the Bahraini monarch and declaring the need to “confront Iran. expansion,” brought its troops (supported by the armed forces of some GCC countries) into the territory of Bahrain. Saud. The leadership reacted negatively to the overthrow of Egypt. President M.H. Mubarak, refused to support the movement Muslim Brotherhood, approved the removal from power of M. Morsi and established close relations with the new head of Egypt A. F. al-Sisi. Continuing the course of countering Iran’s “hegemony” in the Islamic world and in the Persian Gulf zone, S.A. welcomed the resignation of the government of Nuri al-Maliki in Iraq and now considers the opening of the Saudi Arabia possible. embassy in Baghdad, declaring, however, that the presence of local Sunnis in power structures is insufficient. Saud. The government condemns Israel for its punitive actions in the Gaza Strip, but refuses contacts with the Hamas movement and provides support to the Palestinian National Authority. administration headed by M. Abbas. Countering radical sentiments in Arab. world, S.A. considers the “Arab. the peace initiative" as aimed at achieving it will end. political settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict.

In connection with the death of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz on January 23, 2015 in Saudi Arabia. Salman ibn Abd al-Aziz ascended the throne. On April 29, 2015, he declared his nephew, Mohammed ibn Naef, as crown prince, and his son, Mohammed ibn Salman, as his successor.

On most global and regional problems (conflict situations in the Middle East, primarily around Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, Sudan, the Arab-Israeli conflict), as well as on issues of non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the fight against extremism and terrorism, transnational organized crime, drug trafficking and piracy, on the subject of the G20, the positions of the Russian Federation and S.A. coincide or are close. Bilateral contacts are maintained at senior and high levels. On Sept. 2003 Visited Moscow with official. visit of the future king S.A. Abdullah ibn Abd al-Aziz, during which he held negotiations with Russian President V.V. Putin. In Feb. 2007 official event took place. V.V. Putin’s visit to S.A. A set of bilateral agreements, memorandums and protocols was signed, including the General Agreement of November 20, 1994. Since 2002, the Joint Intergovernmental Organization has been operating. Russian-Saudi commission on trade and economics and scientific and technical. cooperation and Russian-Saudi business council (within the framework of the Russian-Arab business council). Large projects are being implemented in S.A. companies OJSC LUKOIL Overseas, including within the framework of the joint venture with Saudi Aramco "LUKOIL Saudi Arabia Energy" (LUKSAR), OJSC Stroytransgaz, CJSC Globalstroy-Engineering, etc.

Russian-Saudi sphere relations neither in historical In retrospect, today it is not free, however, from the problems that complicate mutual understanding between the two countries. Saud. public and private foundations under the slogan of “Islamic solidarity” actively acted on growth. North Caucasus, providing financial support to the Chechens. separatists. Only on Sept. 2003, while in Moscow, Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz stated that the Chech. question – “internal. business" of Russia, and contributed to the further registration of growth. membership in the OIC as an observer country (from the end of June 2005). S.A. is wary of Iran. nuclear program, considering that the negotiations taking place around it do not sufficiently take into account its interests and the interests of the GCC countries. Most means. irritant in the Russian-Saudi region. relations is the situation in Syria, in relation to which S.A. insists on the resignation of B. Assad and the transfer of power to the National. coalition forces sire. opposition and revolution.

Farm

S.A. is a developing country with a high level of income. GDP volume is 1616.0 billion dollars (2014, at purchasing power parity; 14th place in the world, 1st among Arab countries); in terms of GDP per capita, 52.5 thousand dollars (high per capita income is determined by the relatively small population and, therefore, income from oil exports). Human Development Index 0.836 (2013; 34th among 187 countries).

The basis of the economy is the production and export of oil (43% of GDP, 2014; over 80% of the state budget revenue) and petrochemicals. industry GDP dynamics means. largely due to oil prices. Wed. the growth rate of real GDP in 2000–08 was 5.1%, in 2009 – 1.8%, in 2010 – 7.4%, in 2011 – 8.6%, in 2012 – 5.8%, in 2013 – 3 ,8%.

Since the 1990s Much attention is paid to diversifying the economic structure and liberalizing the economy with increasing the role of private entrepreneurship. Economic development is carried out on the basis of 5-year plans. Great progress has been made in the development of petrochemicals. industry, infrastructure, energy, sea desalination. water, some industries in the light and food industries, as well as in healthcare. The development of new industries is facilitated by tax concessions, benefits for natural gas, electricity, etc. One of the chapters. obstacles to further diversification of the economy – lack of readiness b. Part of the economically active population to work in non-prestigious professions (the main part of those employed in industry are foreign workers).

The volume of accumulated direct foreign exchange. investment approx. 240.6 billion dollars (2013; at market prices), the total volume of external debt is estimated at 149.4 billion dollars. Inflation rates are approx. 3.7% (2013). S.A. has large foreign assets (approx. $737.6 billion, 2014), which are managed by sovereign national. investment funds. As part of attracting foreigners. investments in 2005, the country joined the WTO, the government began to create several “economic. cities" in various regions of the country.

Due to the decline in oil prices in 2013–14, there was a government surplus. The budget in 2013 decreased to $54.9 billion ($103 billion in 2012), the budget in 2014 was reduced to a deficit of $14.4 billion.

In the structure of GDP, the share of industry is 59.7%, the service sector - 38.3%, p. farming and fishing – 2.0% (2014).

Industry

Modern Manufacturing industries are in their infancy (in 2009–12, the total number of enterprises increased from 4887 to 6519). Basic role in industry production is played by mining (mainly the extraction of oil and natural gas) and petrochemical. industry Electric power industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of building materials, light industry, and food industry are also highlighted. In the beginning. 21st century The automotive, electrical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries are developing. Based on the number of employees, petrochemical industries are distinguished. (142.6 thousand people, 2012) and food (114.4) industry.

Prom. enterprises are built in complexes (the so-called industrial or economic cities; 14 in 2007, 28 in 2012; the largest are in Yanbu al-Bahr, Medina district; Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair, both -n Vostochny) with pre-prepared production. and social infrastructure and are located Ch. arr. by sea the perimeter of the country.

Fuel industry

The basis of the fuel industry is oil production and refining. The industry is governed by the Supreme Petroleum Council [includes state. Saudi Arabian Oil Co. ("Saudi Aramco"; the world's largest in terms of oil reserves and production) and "Saudi Basic Industries Corporation" (SABIC)]. S.A. is a key member. Organizations of oil exporting countries(approx. 1/3 of the total production of the countries included in the organization).

Oil production 542.3 million tons (2012; 1st place in the world); basic area - the Al-Hasa lowland and the adjacent shelf zone of the Persian Gulf. (according to production volumes, deposits in the Vostochny region are distinguished: Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji, Khurais, Manifa, Sheiba, Qatif, Khursaniya, Zuluf, Abqaiq, etc.); Several are being developed south of Riyadh. new ultra-light oil fields. Oil export 378.6 million tons (2013; 1st place in the world). Approx. processed annually. 101.4 million tons of crude oil (2012; production of fuel oil, diesel fuel, gasoline, jet fuel, lubricating oils, etc.).

The world's largest complex for primary oil refining is in Abqaiq (Bukaiq; Vostochny district; Saudi Aramco company; capacity 348.5 million tons per year; about 70% of produced oil is processed; including production in light and ultra-light oil). The largest refineries in the cities: Ras Tanura (Eastern district; capacity of about 26 million tons of crude oil per year), Rabigh (Mecca region), Yanbu al-Bahr (both - about 19 million tons ), Al-Jubail (approx. 15 million tons).

Natural gas production 111 billion m 3 (2012; according to other data, 93 billion m 3; about 70% is associated gas from the Gavar, Saffaniya-Khafji and Zuluf fields; it is planned to increase production through the development of the Karan, Wasit and other fields .). There are plants for processing and liquefying natural gas (total capacity of over 61 million tons in 2013) in Abqaiq, Yanbu al-Bahr, Haradh, Hawiyah (the last two are in the Vostochny region), etc.

Electric power industry

Electricity production approx. 292.2 billion kWh (2013; more than doubled compared to 2000); 100% is generated at thermal power plants, the largest: Riyadh (in Riyadh; capacity 5336 MW), Ghazlan (in Ras Tannur; 4128 MW), Qurayya (in Abqaiq, 3927 MW). The increase in demand for electricity is caused by industrial development, population growth and high energy consumption for air cooling in the summer months (approx. 2/3 of consumption in the residential sector). Solar energy is developing. The industry is managed by the Saudi Electricity Company and regional electricity production companies, and there are also several operating companies. independent generating companies.

Thermal power plants operate with desalination. installations. S.A. is one of the world's leading producers of desalinated water (the development of the industry is of great importance due to the acute shortage of natural fresh water resources); desalinizes installations provide up to 60% of national needs (2013; leading company - state-owned Saline Water Conversion Corporation).

Ferrous metallurgy

Ferrous metallurgy is represented by the extraction of iron ore (760 thousand tons in terms of metal, 2012), direct reduction of iron (5.7 million tons), steel smelting (5.2 million tons) and the production of ferroalloys (196 thousand tons). T). S.A. imports means. part of iron ores and rolled metal. There are rolling mills [with a capacity of 5.5 million tons of rolled steel per year in Al-Jubail, as part of the leading national Saudi Iron and Steel Company (Hadeed); power approx. 800 thousand tons in Dammam, etc.], pipe rolling (jointly owned by ArcelorMittal and Bin Jarallah Group; seamless pipes, including large diameter ones, for the oil and gas industry; approx. 500 thousand t; in Al-Jubail), ferroalloys (Gulf Ferro Alloys Company; in Al-Jubail), for the production of steel reinforcement [in Jeddah (1.1 million tons per year) and Al-Kharj, district Riyadh (755.5 thousand tons), both are part of one of the leading national. companies "Rajhi Steel Industries Co."], billets (950 thousand tons), coils (250 thousand tons; both are part of the company "Rajhi Steel Industries Co.", Jeddah), slabs, etc.

Non-ferrous metallurgy

Mining of non-ferrous metal ores (thousand tons, 2012) is underway: bauxite (760; deposits of Ez-Zabira, Hail district, and El-Bayta, district of Al-Qassim), zinc (15, in terms of metal; deposits Al-Masane, Najran district; Al-Amar, Riyadh district; Mahd-ed-Dahab, Medina district), etc.; as well as (t, 2012) silver (7.9), gold (4.3; including the El-Amar, Mahd-ed-Dahab deposits; El-Hajar, Asir district; Bulgah, district Medina). Metallurgical complex in Ras al-Khair is one of the largest in the world [jointly owned by the national. "Saudi Arabian Mining Company" ("Ma'aden") and Amer. Alcoa; power approx. 1.8 million tons of alumina and approx. 740 thousand tons of primary aluminum]. Plants for the enrichment of gold ore in Bulgah and Sukhaybarat (Medina district). Smelting (t, 2013): zinc 28.0, copper approx. 10.0, lead st. 0.5, etc. (mostly sampled from imported raw materials). Production of aluminum foil and containers, copper wire, etc.

Mechanical engineering

The automotive industry is actively developing. There are automobile assembly plants in Dammam (Isuzu trucks) and Jeddah (Mercedes-Benz trucks); production of automotive parts and components. Release divers. equipment (energy; for the oil and gas industry - production and technological center of the American company General Electric in Dammam), cable products, assembly of household appliances, etc. Shipbuilding, ship repair and aircraft repair enterprises, mechanical. workshops.

Chemical industry

The organization and management of the industry is carried out by the head. arr. national SABIC holding; b. including petrochemical plants are located in the cities of Al-Jubail (as part of the Al-Jubail Petrochemical Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the American Exxon Mobil, Saudi Japanese Acrylonitrile Company - a joint venture between SABIC and the Japanese corporations Asahi Kasei Chemicals and Mitsubishi, etc.) and Yanbu el-Bahre (including the Saudi Kayan Petrochemical Company complex with a capacity of up to 5.6 million tons of products per year) (operate in cooperation with refineries).

Basic organic products synthesis (production capacity, million tons per year, 2014): ethylene 19.5 (3rd place in the world; approx. 11% of world production), polyethylene approx. 18.4 (including high pressure approx. 3.5), methanol approx. 8.9, ammonia approx. 7.9, propylene St. 6.5, polypropylene approx. 5.6, urea 5.5, ethylene glycol 4.3, ethylene oxide 3.3, styrene 2.5, etc.

Miner production occupies an important place. fertilizers: phosphorus (based on phosphorites from the El-Jalamid deposit, El-Hudud al-Shamaliya district; it includes an enrichment plant with a capacity of 5 million tons of concentrate per year), nitrogen, etc.; basic centers are Al-Jubail and Ras al-Khair.

Production of sulfuric acid in Ras al-Khair and Yanbu al-Bahr, phosphoric acid and nitrogen in Ras al-Khair, chlorine, caustic. soda and hydrochloric acid - near Dammam, titanium dioxide - in Yanbu el-Bahr and Jizan, magnesia - near Medina. Production of polymer films (including polyethylene and polypropylene) and materials, plastic products (including a plant for the production of plastic pipes in Riyadh), thermoplastics. resins, decomposition coatings, industrial adhesives, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and sanitary and hygienic products.

Construction materials industry

The building materials industry is based on its own. raw materials. Extraction (million tons, 2012): limestone (over 49), building. sand and gravel (approx. 27), brick and refractory clay (approx. 6), gypsum (st. 2); as well as (thousand tons, 2012) feldspar (168), kaolin (58, Ez-Zabira deposit), marble (25), etc. Cement production 50 million tons (2012); basic plants (capacity, million tons, 2012) - in Al-Hofuf (8.6), Riyadh (6.3), Rabigh (4.8), Yanbu al-Bahr (4.0) and Jal- el-Watahe (near Buraidah, 4.0).

Woodworking, pulp and paper, light and food industries

The country is rapidly developing woodworking, pulp and paper [including the production of furniture, cardboard (factory of the leading regional manufacturer - MEPCO company in Jeddah), paper (Dammam)], light (especially clothing production; large a role is played by handicraft enterprises - textile, weaving, carpet-making, leather and footwear, jewelry, pottery, etc.; the main centers are Jeddah, Mecca, Taif), food processing (the main production of drinks, as well as dairy products, confectionery , bakery and tobacco products, processing of agricultural raw materials, including dates, fish, etc.) industry. Printing enterprises.

Agriculture

Since the 1960s The state plays a leading role in the development of the industry: the introduction of modern technology. technology and engineering; state programs to provide peasants with land plots, issue interest-free loans and compensation for the purchase of equipment, seeds and fertilizers; support for purchase prices for grains and dates; providing benefits and subsidies to livestock farmers (increasing breeding stock at the expense of the state, importing feed and livestock from abroad), encouraging private initiative.

Large companies predominate in production. Possibilities of conducting s. farms are limited by natural climate. conditions (rainfed farming is possible on lands in the southwestern part of the country).

In the structure of agricultural of land (million hectares, 2011) out of 173.4, pastures account for 170.0, arable land - 3.2, perennial plantings - 0.2. S.A. provides itself with some types of food, but cannot achieve complete self-sufficiency (up to 80% of food is imported, 2012).

Leading industry farms - crop production. It develops in large oases (Al-Hasa in the Eastern region, Ed-Dawasir in the Riyadh region, etc.) and on irrigated lands (in the Asir, Riyadh, Al-Qassim, Eastern, etc.) regions. , as well as in greenhouse farms. Ch. agricultural crop – date palm. Date collection 1065 thousand tons (2013; 3rd place in the world); They also grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, etc.

In livestock farming there are large modern feedlot farms. Dairy and beef cattle breeding is concentrated around Riyadh, in the Al Qassim and Eastern regions. Traditional camel breeding, sheep breeding and horse breeding (common in the interior of the country and in mountainous regions). Poultry farming. Beekeeping. Livestock (million heads of livestock, 2013): sheep 11.5, goats 3.4, cattle 0.5, camels 0.3. Production (thousand tons, 2013): milk 2338.0, meat 802.8, leather and skins 51.5, wool 11.5. Fishing; fishing for pearls and sponges in the Persian Gulf, mining of black coral and amber.

Services sector

Stand out (billions of dollars, 2012) state. services (90.2), wholesale and retail trade, restaurant and hotel business (58.4), financial and business services (55.6), transport and logistics. services and communications (approx. 31.0), social and personal services (approx. 12.0). The country's financial system is regulated by the S.A. Monetary Agency (Central Bank, 1957; in Riyadh); largest commercial banks - state National commercial bank (1953; Jeddah), state. Al Rajhi, Riyad (both in Riyadh), etc. Saud. stock exchange (Tadawul; the only one in the country; in Riyadh). In 2014, 16.7 million people visited the country. (over 55% from Arab countries), income amounted to $9.2 billion. Main. Types of incoming tourism - religious (36.7% in 2012; mainly from Jordan and Pakistan; main centers - Mecca and Medina), business (18.6%), visiting relatives and friends (17.7%).

Transport

Basic mode of transport – automobile. The total length of roads is 221.4 thousand km, including 47.5 thousand km with hard surfaces (2006). Ch. roads pass through the main settlements, and also connect S.A. with Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar, the UAE, and Yemen. The dam bridge (length approx. 25 km) connects S.A. with Bahrain. The total length of railways is 1378 km (2008). Several international airports (the largest are in Jeddah and Riyadh). Aviation passenger turnover transport 68 million people (2013). Mor. transport is served by Ch. arr. foreign trade transportation. Mor. the fleet consists of 72 vessels (2010; including 45 tankers). Ch. mor. ports (cargo turnover, million tons in 2012): Jeddah 62.7, Jubail 52.8, Yanbu al-Bahr 40.0, Dammam 27.4, Ras al-Khair 2.3, Jizan 1.5 , Duba (Diba) 1.1 (Medina district). An extensive network of pipelines has been created. The total length of oil pipelines is 5117 km [including the Trans-Arabian Abqaiq – Yanbu el-Bahr (“Petroline”, or East-West) with a length of approx. 1200 km from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf. to oil refineries and ports of Krasnyi metro; underwater from S.A. fields to Bahrain], oil product pipelines 1150 km (Dahran - Riyadh, length about 380 km; Riyadh - Qasim, length about 354 km, etc.), gas pipelines 2940 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu -el-Bahr, etc.), for the transportation of liquefied natural gas - 1183 km (Abqaiq - Yanbu el-Bahr, etc.), condensate - 209 km (2013). Metro in Mecca and Riyadh (under construction, 2015).

International trade

The balance of foreign trade turnover is traditionally active. The volume of foreign trade turnover (million dollars, 2014) is 521.6, including exports 359.4, imports 162.2. The commodity structure of exports is dominated (% of value, 2013) by minerals. resources 87.5 (main crude oil), chemical products. industry 9.4. Ch. buyers (% of value, 2013): China 13.9, USA 13.6, Japan 13.0, Republic of Korea 9.8, India 9.5. Imported (% of value, 2013): machinery and transport equipment 43.3, chemical products. industry and other metal products 22.9, food and agricultural products goods 14.3. Ch. suppliers (% of cost, 2013): USA 13.1, China 12.9, India 8.1, Germany 7.4, Republic of Korea 6.1.

Armed forces

The Armed Forces (AF) number 233.5 thousand people. (2014) and consist of 4 types - Ground Forces (ground forces), air force, air defense forces, navy and independent forces. kind of missile forces. In addition to the regular army, the armed forces also include national ones. guard, border troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (10.5 thousand people), coast guard (4.5 thousand), industrial forces. security (9 thousand people), intended for action in crisis situations. During the threatened period and during the war. time, military officers may be involved in the interests of the Armed Forces. formations and units of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Military annual budget $62 billion (2014 estimate). Supreme Commander. The Armed Forces is the head of the state - the king, who exercises general leadership through the Ministry of Defense, the General Staff and the Military. inspection. The king appoints min. defense, chief of the General Staff and commanders of the armed forces.

NE (75 thousand people) – main. type of aircraft. The combat structure of the Army includes: brigades (4 armored, 5 mechanized, artillery, airborne), army aviation command (2 aviation brigades) and other units. They are in service with approx. 600 tanks, 300 armored personnel carriers, 1420 armored personnel carriers, 780 infantry fighting vehicles, 240 towed guns, 60 MLRS, 440 mortars, 2400 ATGM launchers, 900 short-range air defense systems, 1000 MANPADS. Army aviation has 12 combat and 55 multi-purpose and transport helicopters.

The Air Force (20 thousand people) is organized organizationally into commands (operational, supply, etc.) and aviation. squadrons. The Air Force is armed with approx. 300 combat aircraft, including 170 fighter-bombers (7 squadrons) and 110 fighters (6 squadrons). Military transport aviation has 45 aircraft. In addition, there are 16 refueling aircraft, St. 100 combat and training aircraft. Helicopter aviation numbers approx. 80 units. The Air Force also includes the Royal Airlift Wing - 16 aircraft. There are 15 militaries in the country. airfields, including 5 ch. Air Force bases (Dhahran, Taif, Khamis Mushait, Tabuk, Riyadh).

The air defense troops (16 thousand people) consist of anti-aircraft missile forces, anti-aircraft artillery and radio engineering units. troops. Organizationally, the air defense forces are consolidated into 6 districts. Interceptor fighters from the Air Force are operationally subordinate to the air defense. The air defense forces are armed with 144 Patriot missile launchers, 128 Improved Hawk missile launchers, 141 Shahin missile launchers, 40 Krotal self-propelled launchers, 270 anti-aircraft guns and installations, etc.

The Navy (13.5 thousand people) includes 2 fleets, each of them with several. groups of ships and boats. In service there are 7 guided missile frigates, 4 corvettes, 9 missile boats, 17 large and 39 small patrol boats, 7 mine-sweeping ships, 8 landing boats, 2 supply transports, 13 tugs; to sea aviation - 34 helicopters (including 21 combat ones). Mor. the infantry (3 thousand people) is represented by a regiment (2 battalions), armed with 140 armored personnel carriers. Coastal defense troops have 4 batteries of Otomat mobile coastal missile systems. Basic naval bases and bases - Jeddah, Al-Jubail, Yanbu al-Bahr, etc.

The coast guard (4.5 thousand people) has 50 patrol boats, 350 motor boats, and a training vessel.

National The guard (100 thousand people) includes regular formations (75 thousand people) and tribal detachments. Its main purpose - protection of the monarchy. regime, protection of governments. institutions, oil fields and other objects. Subordinates directly to the king, formed in the main. on a tribal basis, coordinates its actions with the Ministry of Defense, General Staff, security forces and police. Organizationally it consists of brigades (3 mechanized, 5 infantry) and cavalry. squadron (for ceremonial purposes). In service approx. 2000 armored personnel carrier, 514 armored personnel carrier, 70 art. guns, 110 mortars of 81 and 120 mm calibers, St. 120 PU ATGM.

Recruitment of regular aircraft on a voluntary basis. Men aged 18–35 years are accepted for service. Mobilization resources 5.9 million people, including those fit for military service. service 3.4 million people. Weapons and military The equipment is almost entirely imported (from the USA and Great Britain).

The training of privates and non-commissioned officers is carried out in training centers and schools, officers - in academies of the armed forces and abroad. There are a large number of foreigners in the regular armed forces. military specialists.

Healthcare

Per 100 thousand inhabitants there are 94 doctors; 22 hospital beds – for 10 thousand inhabitants. (2011). There are 244 hospitals and 2037 health centers (2009). The overall mortality rate for adults. 3.32 per 1000 inhabitants. (2014). Basic causes of death – cardiovascular and oncological. diseases, diabetes. Total healthcare expenditures amount to 3.7% of GDP (2011) (budgetary funding – 65.8%, private – 34.2%; 2012). Legal regulation of healthcare is carried out on the basis of the Fund. nizam on power (1992), laws on cooperative health insurance (1999), on private medical services. laboratories (2002), about labor (2005). The Ministry of Health provides preventive, therapeutic and rehabilitation services. honey. assistance and their financing. For citizens of S.A. med. help is free. The healthcare system is divided into primary, secondary and tertiary levels of medical care. service. There is also Islamic Cooperative Health Insurance (Takaful). Basic recreation areas - Al-Khobar, Dammam, Jeddah, etc.

Sport

The SA Olympic Committee was founded and recognized by the IOC in 1964. Since 1972, SA athletes have taken part in the Olympic Games (with the exception of the games in Moscow, 1980); 3 medals were won - silver in the 400 m hurdles (Hadi al-Somaili in Sydney, 2000) and 2 bronze (Khaled al-Eid, individual show jumping in 2000 and team show jumping in London, 2012). The most popular sport is football. The SA Football Federation was founded in 1956. The SA national football team is a 3-time winner (1984, 1988, 1996) and a 3-time finalist (1992, 2002, 2007) of the Asian Cup; in 1994 she played in the 1/8 World Cup. The capital's Al-Hilal club (1957) is one of the strongest in Asia, a 13-time national champion (1977–2011), hosts opponents at the stadium. King Fahd (approx. 62 thousand seats).

SA athletes have been taking part in the Asian Games since 1978 (with the exception of 1998); in 1978–2014, 24 gold, 11 silver and 20 bronze medals were won.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The education system in S.A. took shape towards the end. 20th century Regulatory documents – Document on formation. politics (1969) and Strategic. Ministry of Education plan (2004–14). Preparation of Prof. personnel is under the jurisdiction of the Corporation for Vocational and Technical. education, sphere of higher education – Ministry of Higher Education. Education is free at all levels. The education system includes: preschool education (underdeveloped), 6-year primary education, 5-year (3-year incomplete and 2-year complete) education. 3-year vocational-technical course education is provided in junior colleges. Preschool education covered (2013) 13.2% of children, primary education – 93.4%, secondary education – 90.1%. The literacy rate of the population aged 15 years and older is 96% (data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). Higher education is provided by high fur boots, higher technical. institutes, colleges of technology, pedagogical. colleges, colleges for girls. In the country there are St. 20 universities: Islamic University named after. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud (1950, current status since 1974), University named after. King Saud (1957) - both in Riyadh, University of Petroleum and Mining. resources named after King Fahd in Dhahran (1963, current status since 1975), Univ. King Faisal (has branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (1975), University of Science and Technology. King Abdullah (2009; 80 km from Jeddah), as well as the high fur boots of Dammam, Jeddah, Medina, Mecca, etc. The largest libraries: National (1968) and public. King Abd al-Aziz (1999) - both in Riyadh, King Abd al-Aziz in Medina (1983) and others. Nat. museum in Riyadh (1999).

Among scientific institutions: Research Center named after. King Abd al-Aziz (1972) and the Center for Research and Study of Islam. King Faisal (1983) - both in Riyadh; Center for Research in Islamic Education in Mecca (1980), Institute of Islamic Studies in Jeddah (1982).

Mass media

Daily newspapers are published in Arabic. languages: “Al-Jazeera” (“Peninsula”; since 1960; circulation about 123 thousand copies, Riyadh), “Al-Bilad” (“Country”; since 1934; about 30 thousand. copies, Jeddah), “Al-Madina” (“Medina”; since 1937; about 60 thousand copies, Jeddah), “Ukaz” (“Ukaz Newspaper”; since 1960; about 250 thousand . copies, Jeddah), “An-Nadwa” (“Club”; since 1958; approx. 30 thousand copies, Mecca), “Al-Yaum” (“Day”; since 1965; approx. 135 thousand copies, Dammam). In English. language daily newspapers are published: Arab News (since 1975; approx. 51 thousand copies), Saudi Gazette (since 1976; approx. 50 thousand copies, both in Jeddah). Radio broadcasting since 1948, television since 1964. Broadcasting of television and radio programs is carried out by the SA Broadcasting Service (Riyadh), the Government Television Service of the SA (Riyadh), Aramco Radio (Dhahran), Dhahran TV ( Dhahran). National information Saudi Press Agency (founded 1970, Riyadh).

Literature

The literature of the peoples of S.A. is created in Arabic. language. Before gaining statehood, S.A. developed in line with the Arab- Muslim culture; in the beginning. 20th century presented in the main poetry in classical Arab. language, as well as prosaic. works of religion, history. and didactic. character. In con. 1920s - early 1930s Signs of renewal are noticeable: romanticism arose in poetry that reflected the influence of Egyptian literature. A major role in the development of prose was played by the book published in Medina since 1937. "al-Manhal", who published translations of stories from Western. and east languages; his publishers Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari and Ahmed Rida Khuhu became the founders of the short story genre, which initially had an exclusively edifying and sentimental character. Didacticism permeates the novels of Abd al-Quddus al-Ansari (“Twins”, 1930), Muhammad Maghribi (“Resurrection”, 1942), Ahmed Rida Khuhu (“The Girl from Mecca”, 1947) and Ahmed al-Sibai (“Thought”, 1948), who promoted education. and cultural reforms.

From the beginning 1950s realism began to take hold; got to graduate. modern design prosaic genres, literature acquired pronounced national. features determined by the characteristics of culture, life, socio-political. life. It's rushing. changes in lifestyle were reflected in the novels “The Price of Sacrifice” by Hamid Damanhuri (1959; in Russian translation 1966 “Love and Duty”) and “The Hole in the Veil of Night” by Ibrahim al-Humeidan (1959), which determined the main themes of realism. prose – the conflict of “fathers” and “sons”, modernization of societies. morals Among the most prominent realist prose writers: Abd ar-Rahman ash-Sha'ir, Sibai Usman, Najat Hayat. The characteristic feature is realistic. prose - autobiography: novels by Fuad Ankawi, Isam Haukir, Abd al-Aziz Mishri, as well as the trilogy of Turki al-Hamad “Ghosts in Deserted Lanes” (1995–98).

From the 2nd half. 1970s modernist aesthetics are established. Interest in the subconscious, the construction of a subjective, often irrational image of the world turned out to be a convenient opportunity to overcome censorship obstacles. The expression of unconscious desires, manias and obsessive states of an “alienated” person who has lost faith in the rationality of the world around him is at the center of the stories of Muhammad Alwan, Hussein Ali Hussein, Jarallah al-Hamid, Sada al-Dawsari, Abdallah Bahashwein, Noura al-Ghamedi, Badriya al-Bishr, Layla al-Uhaidib. Connection of modern Narrative forms with folklore techniques are distinguished by the works of Miryam al-Ghamedi, Hassan an-Nimi, Sultana al-Sideiri.

A wide variety of styles is inherent in literature. 20 – beginning 21st centuries: the novel “Reyhana” by Ahmed al-Duwaihi (1991) appears as a mosaic of scenes snatched from different points in space and time; mixing modernity with Arab. Middle-century heritage and people legends mark the novels “The Fortress” by Abd al-Aziz Mishri (1992) and “The Silk Road” by Raja Alem (1995). Warda Abd al-Malik's novel The Return (2006) uses the technique stream of consciousness. Great popularity in Arabic. The novels “She Shoots Sparks” by Abdo Hal (2008) and “The Necklace of Doves” by Raja Alem (2010) have gained popularity around the world.

Architecture and fine arts

Artist Since ancient times, SA culture developed in oases connected by caravan routes. The oldest artifacts date back to the early Lower Paleolithic (stone tools). In the Neolithic era, ceramics, objects made of obsidian, petroglyphs with scenes of hunting and rituals, figures of people and animals appeared (Jubba oasis near the city of Hail). From the 6th millennium BC. e. there is an increase in cultural ties with the South. Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the finds of Ubaid painted ceramics in the north-east. parts of the country. From the end 4th millennium BC e. tools made of bronze, vessels made of stone with carved decoration, and painted ceramics with zoomorphic and geometric designs are becoming widespread. ornaments, carved seals of the Mesopotamian type; monumental buildings (sanctuaries, tower tombs), stone sculpture (tombstone anthropomorphic steles from the environs of Hail and the El-Ula oasis, late 4th - 3rd millennium BC) appear. Monuments of the 1st half. 1st millennium BC e. (for example, the ruins of religious buildings and the palace of the Babylonian king Nabonidus in the oasis of Taima, mid-6th century BC) indicate increased contacts with Assyria and Babylonia. In the north of the country there are monuments of the kingdom of Lihyan (el-Ula oasis - ancient Dedan, 5-2 centuries BC) and Nabataean kingdom(city of Hegra, modern Madain-Salih, 2nd century BC - 1st century AD; included in the list World Heritage): rectangular sanctuaries, rock tombs with jagged facades (2nd century BC - 1st century AD), fragments of stone statues with generalized rough facial features and reliefs with images of animals. At the turn of the 1st millennium BC. e. – 1st millennium AD e. in the department In the regions of S.A., the influence of Greco-Roman is evident in wall paintings, bronze sculpture, and jewelry. culture (finds from the excavations of Qaryat el-Faw, etc.). The largest Hellenistic ensemble on the territory of S.A. - the remains of the city and the royal necropolis of Saj near the city of Al-Jubail. From 4th–6th centuries. the ruins of the department have been preserved. Christian buildings (church near Al-Jubail). From Middle Ages. Islamic architecture of S.A. survived by a few monuments in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, also at the sites of pilgrims. Gor. development gray 18 – beginning 20th centuries bears Ottoman and Egyptian features. influences Traditional residential architecture is represented by buildings made of mud brick (in inland areas) or coral limestone and wood (in Hijaz and on the coast of the Red Sea), lined with gypsum, on a stone base, with wood. beam ceiling. Jeddah and Medina are characterized by tower houses with flat roofs, wooden. bars (mashrabiya) on the balconies, for Abhi - houses with eaves (from the rain).

After the formation of the independent state of S.A. in Riyadh, Jeddah and other cities, along with traditions. development, with middle 20th century modern multi-storey buildings appear. type, using concrete. Since the 1970s construction is underway with the involvement of foreigners. architects and urban planners (general plans for 10 cities in the northern and central parts of the country, the firm of K. A. Doxiadis), on the site of historical. buildings are being built in modern times. neighborhoods with buildings in international style, but with elements of tradition. Islamic architecture (mosques in Jeddah, architect Abdel Wahid al-Wakil). New types of societies are emerging. buildings (al-Khairiya complex, 1982, architect Tange Kenzo; construction of the international airports named after King Khalid in Riyadh, 1983, and in Jeddah, 1981, architectural bureau "Skidmore, Owings & Merrill", International Stadium . King Fahd in Riyadh, 1987, etc.). From the end 20th century in connection with the reconstruction of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet's Mosque in Medina and the creation of numerous. pilgrim complexes, mountains ensembles are being intensively developed in modern times. builds. technologies and sun protection structures, decorative materials. Among the newest buildings are the Faisaliya Tower (2000, architect N. Foster and others), the Royal Center Tower (2003, both in Riyadh).

Modern S.A. painting and sculpture began to develop in the 2nd half. 20th century (A. Radvi, M. Mossa al-Salim, F. Samra, etc.). Nar. The claim is presented traditionally. jewelry, amulets, leather and wool products.

Culture

Culture is strongly associated with Islam; public theaters, cinemas, and secular music concerts are prohibited. Since 1985, an annual national event has been held near Riyadh. festival “Dzhenadria” (folk music and dances, in which only men participate; poetry, painting, etc.).