What countries does Ireland border on? Crossed all boundaries

Borders are my favorite travel topic. This is not just a strip on the map and a feature on the ground, but a real rift between civilizations. Somewhere the borders are huge fences, mines and anti-tank ditches, and in quieter places you can find yourself in another country and not even notice.

Between Ireland and the UK do not check the documents and forced to open the trunk. But kilometers become miles and euros become pounds.

Are there other differences? To understand this, I traveled through two countries at the same time.

1 I am driving on a perfectly flat road with excellent new markings. Soon everything will change?

2 The beginning and end of each locality in the Republic of Ireland is marked with signs wishing for a safe journey and indicating the speed limit. At the bottom of the sign specify - kilometers per hour.

3 I was going to Northern Ireland a year ago, but got “stuck” visiting David, who bought a Transaero plane and is making a hotel out of it. Then I asked everyone (both Russians and Irish) how the north differs from the south, and what is there on the border. “Yes, the same thing,” they told me. People, how careless you are!

4 Here it is, the frontier. The one on the left side of the photo is independent Ireland. The houses on the right are in the UK. Speed ​​is in miles.

5 See for yourself, here is the southerners sign. Pay attention to the markings, reflectors, the road sign itself.

5-1 Derry and Londonderry are the same city.

6 With rare exceptions, Northern Ireland does not explain the units in which speed is measured. Like, you have to guess where you are. And only the most attentive, even among the locals, will guess: the border winds in such a way that even a sober person cannot figure it out.

7 But I don’t understand in miles, and I’m too lazy to calculate. How did you drive in America? So everything is clear: the speed limit is 70 - you go 70. And what is 112 kilometers per hour - well, who will bother? By the way, with the border crossing, the car's odometer for some reason began to show numbers in miles. Although the speedometer itself remained in kilometers (of course, it’s analog damn it!). When moving back, nothing has changed. Strange thing, there is definitely no GPS in the car.

8 Prudent Southern Irish remind you to drive on the left side of the road. This despite the fact that in Britain exactly the same left-hand traffic. Well, you never know, suddenly the tourists forgot.

9 It's boring to ride across borders just like that, so I poked at the map and found a village located in both countries at the same time. This is Pettigo.

10 Get ready to be surprised: the tractor is in Ireland, and the subjects of the queen live in those houses in the background.

11 The small river Termon flows through Petigo, along which the border was drawn. North to the right, south to the left.

12 Footbridge. The flower bed is neutral territory.

13 There are 600 people living here (on both sides), and their number is not growing, but decreasing. So the standard of living leaves much to be desired, many houses are dilapidated or abandoned.

14 Let's cross the bridge and look at the British.

15 There is a British Telecom telephone booth right there. They say that you can pay in euros. So in stores in both countries, they can accept either of the two currencies. The only question is at what rate. After all, if food is cheaper to buy in Ireland, the stores on the British side will simply go bankrupt!

16 The British are Protestants.

17 Irish people are Catholics. And everyone has their own church.

18 It's no trouble here, and everyone lives in peace. There are other examples: in Belfast, huge walls had to be built to separate neighbors along religious lines, otherwise they would have killed each other. But we will return to this story later.

19 House on the “north” side.

20 Closed office of the Royal Mail.

21 British car with Irish plates.

22 The second bridge over the Thermon is automobile. In what specific place the border of states passes, see for yourself. It is very visible!

23 The first thing a traveler sees in Ireland is an advertisement for Guinness beer.

24 And only then that miles became kilometers.

25 Devastation here, almost like in a Russian province.

26 I went into the yard. What's there?

27 They drown with peat! That's where the unusual smell comes from, as if at a distillery ?! And in Dublin in the evening it smells like baked potatoes. I wouldn't be surprised if they actually heat their houses with potatoes.

28 Would you like to live in such a courtyard?

29 Small shop and post office. Unlike the British, it works.

30 Spit on the other side of the river.

31 What is sure to be in the Irish countryside are the national flags. Not very much, but definitely. In Petogo there is also a monument to a peasant with a gun, the hero of the struggle for independence. In Northern Ireland there were no flags in the villages.

32 In general, everyone has calmed down here for a long time. Otherwise, there would be no free passage, and there would be border guards with machine guns. There are problems, but within Northern Ireland itself, and I will say again that this is a topic for a separate discussion and post.

33 I'm on my way to Derry, a big city in the west of Northern Ireland. The borders continue to twist in a bizarre way.

36 For the time being, this is how it is: the road and the horses are in different states.

37 The only remnant of a true cordon can be found on the main road between Belfast and Dublin. You need to get off the expressway onto the old parallel road. The map doesn't lie, in the right place there will even be a zero mile and an abandoned English border house.

How will life change here when the UK finally leaves the European Union, of which the Republic of Ireland is a member? Now Ireland can be visited on an open and “stamped” English visa, but what will happen next? One thing is clear - the appearance of a real border will make it difficult for people on both sides to exist and may finally “finish off” not the most successful British region.

Liked the post? Like, comment, wait for the next one! Next I will talk about the beauty and horrors of Northern Ireland.

IRELAND (Irish - Éire, English - Ireland).

General information

There are 4 historical provinces on the territory of Ireland: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster (the main part of Ulster is part of Northern Ireland). Administratively, Ireland consists of 29 counties and 5 city-counties (Table 1).

The county of Dublin was divided into 4 parts in 1994 (the city-county of Dublin, as well as the counties of South Dublin, Fingal, Dun-Laare-Rathdown), however, under the name "Dublin district" continues to appear in the country's official documents (area 921 km 2; population 1186.1 thousand people, 2006).

Ireland is a member of the UN (1955), the EU (1993; in 1973-92 the European Community), the Council of Europe (1949), the OSCE (1973), the WTO (1995), the IMF (1957), the IBRD (1957).

V. M. Sokolsky.

Political system

Ireland is a unitary state. The constitution was adopted in a plebiscite on July 1, 1937. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 7 years (with the right to one re-election). Any citizen of Ireland who has reached the age of 35 can be a candidate for this position. The president acts on the advice of the government. He has the right to convene and dissolve the House of Representatives at the initiative of the government, promulgate laws, appoint judges and other senior officials, and head the armed forces. The President has an advisory body - the State Council.

The supreme body of legislative power is the parliament, which consists of the president and 2 chambers: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives has 160 to 170 members elected by the people on the basis of universal direct and secret suffrage under the proportional representation system. The number of deputies of the House of Representatives may be determined by law, but one member of the House may be elected by no more than 30,000 and no less than 20,000 people. The Senate consists of 60 members, of which 11 are appointed by the Prime Minister, 6 are elected by the National and Dublin Universities, 43 by indirect elections on special lists (candidates for these lists are put forward by various organizations and associations). The electoral college for elections to the Senate consists of members of the House of Representatives, members of the county and municipal councils. The term of office of both chambers is 5 years.

The head of the executive branch is the prime minister (nominated by the House of Representatives and confirmed by the president). The government must consist of not less than 7 and not more than 15 members. The prime minister, his deputy and the minister of finance must be members of the House of Representatives, other members of the government may be members of the House of Representatives or the Senate (members of the Senate - no more than 2 members of the government). The government is a collegiate body and is responsible to the House of Representatives. The prime minister must resign if he loses the support of a majority of the House of Representatives.

Ireland has a multi-party system. Leading political parties: Fianna Foyle, Fine Gael, Labor Party.

Nature

Relief. There are many small rocky islands off the western coast of Ireland (Aran, Clare, etc.); the coastline is dissected by large bays of the fjord and fiard type (Galway, Shannon, Dingle, Donegal); in the east, mostly low and leveled abrasion-accumulative shores; in the south, small narrow bays alternate with rocky cliffs.

Flat relief prevails. Most of the territory is occupied by the vast Central Lowland (height up to 60 m). Its relief is complicated by separate remnant hills (height 180-300 m), glacial forms (ozes, drumlins); Numerous lakes and swamps formed in the depressions. Karst landforms are widespread: karrs, funnels, caves (up to 12 km long), etc. In the southern part, low-mountain steep massifs with smoothed peaks adjoin the Central Lowland - the Kerry Mountains up to 1041 m high (Mount Carrantuil - the highest point of Ireland), in in the eastern part - the Wicklow Mountains (926 m), etc. In the west and north-west of Ireland, there are deeply dissected ancient ranges 750-800 m high (Nefin Beg, Connemara, etc.).

Geological structure and minerals. The territory of Ireland belongs to a young platform, mainly with the Caledonian folded base, protruding to the surface in the north-west, east and south-east of the country. The Caledonides are divided into two zones: Metamorphic (in the north and northwest) and Non-metamorphic (occupying most of the territory of Ireland, with the exception of the southern and southwestern regions) Caledonides. The Metamorphic Caledonide Zone is composed of Upper Proterozoic-Cambrian metamorphosed terrigenous-carbonate deposits with interlayers of volcanic rocks and is crossed by a large fault (the Great Glen left strike-slip fault); age of folding and metamorphism - early Ordovician (Grampian phase). Non-metamorphic Caledonides are formed by Cambrian-Ordovician-Silurian terrigenous and carbonate deposits; their northern part contains Ordovician island-arc volcanic rocks. The final phase of folding in this zone occurred in the early - early Middle Devonian; the deformations were accompanied by the intrusion of the large Leinster batholith in southeastern Ireland (Wicklow Mountains). The Metamorphic and Non-Metamorphic Caledonides are separated by a rift trough (western extension of the British Middle Valley graben) filled with Lower Middle Devonian molasses (Old Red Sandstone or Old Red), which includes basalts. South of the molasse trough, a suture zone is traced (the suture of the ancient ocean Iapetus, during the closure of which the region of the Caledonian folding was formed). In the southern and southwestern part of Ireland, a folded zone of Hercynian age extends from the southeast [folding and thrust formation occurred from the end of the Middle Carboniferous (Sudetian phase) to the middle of the Early Permian (Saalian phase)]. In Ireland, the folded basement over vast areas is covered by a sedimentary cover, which within the Caledonides began to form from the Late Devonian, and within the Hercynides from the Late Permian. In the Central Lowland, a cover of Quaternary glacial, water-glacial, river, lake and other deposits is developed.

The most important mineral resources of Ireland are lead and zinc ores [deposits in the eastern regions of the country, for example, An-Waw (Navan), Tara], which also contain silver. Deposits of natural combustible gas are located on the southern shelf of Ireland (gas fields Kinsale Head, Seven Hills). Known deposits of copper ores, barite, andalusite, coal, peat, natural building materials and raw materials for the production of building materials (sand, gravel, gypsum, limestone). Exploration of gold deposits is underway.

Climate. The temperate maritime, constantly humid climate of Ireland is formed mainly under the influence of Atlantic cyclones. Throughout the year the weather is changeable; strong winds are frequent; characterized by increased relative humidity and significant cloudiness, increasing in autumn and winter. Winters are mild (average January temperatures range from 5°C in the east to 7°C in the west); cool summers (average July temperatures range from 13°C in the west to 16°C in the south). The greatest amount of precipitation (up to 2000 mm per year) falls on the western slopes of the mountains facing the Atlantic Ocean, the smallest (about 700 mm) - on the eastern plains. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of drizzling rain, with a maximum in the autumn-winter period.

Inland waters. The full-flowing rivers of Ireland form a dense network with a total length of about 15 thousand km. Main rivers: Shannon (the largest river in the British Isles), Liffey, Suhr, Barrow, Blackwater. They are used for navigation and hydropower (about 20 reservoirs with a total volume of 1 km 3 have been created). From the west to the east of Ireland, several shipping channels have been laid (Grand Canal, Royal Canal). There are many lakes, mainly of glacial-tectonic or karst origin, including Lough Corrib (area 176 km 2), Lough Mask, Lough Derg, Lough Ree, etc.

Annually renewable water resources are 52 km 3 . Each inhabitant of the country accounts for almost 13.5 thousand m 3 of water per year. For economic purposes, 2% of the available water resources are used (of which 74% is consumed by industrial enterprises, 16% is spent on domestic water supply, 10% - for the needs of agriculture).

Soils, flora and fauna. In the Central Lowland, podzolized brown forest soils predominate, renosines occur in places; bog soils and gley soils are developed on poorly drained areas of uplands and lowlands. Mountain podzols and burozems dominate in the mountains.

Despite the island position of Ireland, the level of floristic diversity is quite high. The flora includes 1300 species of vascular plants, including 815 native species (endangered - 6 species); 530 species of mosses and over 1000 species of lichens.

Indigenous broad-leaved (mainly oak) forests are almost completely cut down (occupy about 1% of the territory), preserved mainly in the mountains. The total forest cover of the territory reaches 9%, mainly due to artificial plantations of coniferous species (the area is 590 thousand hectares). Heathlands are widespread. About 1/5 of the area falls on peat bogs overgrown with reeds, cotton grass, heather, as well as wetlands specific to Ireland (cover bogs and so-called winter lakes). Among modern agricultural landscapes, which occupy more than 1/2 of the area of ​​Ireland, sown meadows and cultivated pastures predominate.

The fauna of Ireland is characterized by moderate species diversity. In Ireland, there are 27 endemic species and subspecies of animals, mostly endemism is represented among insects. Of the 31 species of mammals (marten, ermine, badger, etc.), 10 are endangered. 168 species of birds are known, 7 of them are rare. Among the 50 species of fish, cod, pike perch, and salmon are of the greatest commercial importance.

104 protected natural areas have been created, occupying 2.2% of the country's area, including 6 national parks. The status of UNESCO Biosphere Reserves has the Killarney National Park (since 1982) and the North Bull Island Nature Reserve (since 1981). In the Wexford Reserve (classified as a wetland of international importance) on the southeast coast of Ireland, 1/2 of the world population of the Greenland white-fronted goose, one of the protected species of the avifauna of Europe, winters.

Lit.: Biological diversity in Ireland. national report. , 1998; Biodiversity and protected areas - Ireland // Earth trends: country profiles. http: // earthtrends.wri.org.

M. A. Arshinova; A. F. Limonov (geological structure and minerals).

Population

The Irish make up 88.8% of the population of Ireland (including Gaels and Shelta Gypsies). Immigrants and their descendants (total 11.2% of the population) live mainly in the Dublin area, of which the British and Scots - 2.7%; immigrants from other European countries: Poles - 1.5%, Lithuanians - 0.6%, Latvians - 0.3%, Germans - 0.2%, French - 0.2%, Romanians - 0.2%, Slovaks - 0.2%, as well as Spaniards, Italians, Czechs, Russians, etc.; from the Americas: US Americans - 0.3%, Brazilians, etc.; from Asia -1.1% (including Chinese - 0.3%, Filipinos - 0.2%, Indians - 0.2%, Pakistanis), from Africa - 0.8% (including from Nigeria - 0 ,4%).

For 120 years (from 1841 to 1961) Ireland was the only country in Europe with a constantly decreasing population. Due to high mortality and mass emigration (mainly to Great Britain and the USA) in 1841-1901, the population of Ireland (in modern borders) decreased from 6.5 to 3.2 million people. In the first half of the 20th century, the rate of population decline gradually slowed down (in 1926-61 it decreased from 2.9 to 2.8 million people). Since the 1960s, there has been a gradually accelerating population growth: 0.55% in 1961-71 (annual average); 1.2% in 1991-2006 (1.15% in 2006). At the beginning of the 21st century, in terms of birth rate (14.45 per 1000 inhabitants, 2006), fertility rate (1.86 children per 1 woman) and natural population growth rate (0.66%), Ireland occupies one of the first places in Europe. In combination with a low mortality rate (7.8 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2006, including infant mortality - 5.3 per 1,000 live births), this contributes to the creation of a favorable demographic situation in the country.

In the 1960s and 80s, the population of Ireland grew exclusively due to natural increase (in the presence of a migration outflow of the population). Since the early 1990s, the influx of immigrants has gradually increased; in 1991-96, the positive migration balance was about 0.5 per 1,000 inhabitants (on average per year), in 1996-2002 - 6.8. At the beginning of the 21st century, the overall population growth is largely due to immigration (42% of the total growth in 2006). After the expansion of the EU (2004), the influx of immigrants from the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, the Czech Republic, etc., about 160 thousand people, 2006) increased; measures are being taken to restrict immigration. The population of Ireland is one of the youngest in Europe: the share of children under 15 years old is 20.9%, people of working age (15-64 years old) 67.6%, aged 65 years and over 11.6% (2006). On average, there are 99 men for every 100 women. The average life expectancy is 77.7 years (men - 75.1, women - 80.5).

Ireland's average population density (about 60 persons/km2 in 2006) is one of the lowest in Europe. The highest population density in the historical province of Leinster (including the Dublin area) is 116 people / km 2, in the province of Munster (with the cities of Cork, Limerick, Waterford) 48 people / km 2; the least densely populated provinces are Ulster (33 people/km2) and Connacht (28 people/km2).

The share of the urban population (59.3% in 2006) is one of the lowest in Europe. The largest city is Dublin (505.7 thousand people, in the urban agglomeration of Greater Dublin 1661.2 thousand people, or about 40% of the country's population); large cities: Cork (119.1 thousand people, in the urban agglomeration of Greater Cork about 380 thousand), Galway (72.0 thousand people, with suburbs about 90 thousand), Limerick (52.6 thousand people, with suburbs about 100 thousand) , Waterford (45.8 thousand people, with suburbs about 50 thousand). The processes of suburbanization and urbanization are developing. The vast majority of the population of Ireland (over 95%) lives in their own homes (one of the highest rates in the world; in the UK - over 80%, in France - 55%).

In total, 1836.2 thousand people are employed in the Irish economy (2006). In the structure of employment, the service sector accounts for 66.3% (including wholesale and retail trade is 13.8%, financial and business services - 13.3%, healthcare - 9.7%, science and education - 6.4 %, transport and communications - 6.1%, restaurant and hotel business - 5.8%, other services - 11.2%), industry - 15.2%, construction - 12.6%, agriculture, forestry and fishing, 5.9% (2005). The unemployment rate (4.3% of the economically active population in 2006) is one of the lowest in the EU.

V. M. Sokolsky.

Religion

About 88% (2005) of Ireland's population are Catholics; about 3.5% do not share any religious beliefs and views; about 3% are adherents of the Church of Ireland; about 2% are representatives of other Christian denominations; about 1.5% are representatives of other faiths; about 2% consider themselves believers without belonging to any particular denomination. On the territory of Ireland (Dublin) there is an Orthodox stauropegial parish of Saints Peter and Paul (established in 2001) of the Sourozh diocese of the Moscow Patriarchate.

Historical outline

Ireland from ancient times to the end of the 12th century. The appearance of man in Ireland dates back to the Mesolithic and, according to some estimates, dates back to the 7th millennium BC. New migrations from the territory of modern Northern France and Belgium took place at the beginning of the Neolithic (end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC), then agriculture and cattle breeding appeared on the territory of Ireland, the Windmillhill culture developed (fortifications with several rows of ditches; long mounds with cremations; round-bottom ceramics). Around the 2nd half of the 3rd millennium BC, the Boyne culture is dated: settlements; underground megalithic graves with a cruciform tomb (the main and 3 side chambers; cremations), covered with a stepped false vault, and with a long corridor (the stones of the walls and ceilings are often covered with carved images of spirals, boats, etc.), sometimes surrounded by stone steles. New settlers from the continent, associated with the Corded Ware cultural and historical community, gave rise to the "culture of goblets" - the carriers of which were semi-nomadic pastoralists who had copper weapons and tools, who buried the remains of cremations under mounds and inside or near henges (rounded areas surrounded by a moat and shaft, as well as pillars or stone steles).

In the early Bronze Age, on the basis of local traditions, the Food Vessel culture was formed (crouched corpses in stone boxes or wooden logs, in pits under barrows are typical), which gave rise to the culture of "burial urns" of the Middle Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age (Dauris phase) is known mainly from finds of hoards of bronze items. During this era, an important center for the mining and metallurgy of copper and gold was formed on the territory of Ireland. Weapons, utensils, jewelry made of these metals were exported to a number of regions of Northern Europe, trade and other contacts reached the Mediterranean. In the 4th century BC, Ireland began to be settled by Celtic tribes who came from Northern Gaul and Britain. They are associated with the spread of the Laten culture in Ireland. By the beginning of our era, the aliens took possession of the entire island. As a result of their assimilation of the pre-Celtic population, the Gaels were formed. They lived in fortified settlements on hills and artificial islands in marshy places, in rounded houses built of dry stones (known here since the Bronze Age), they were mainly engaged in cattle breeding, metallurgy (including ferrous) and metalworking. The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD did not affect Ireland. In the middle of the 3rd century, small territorial associations, initially coinciding with clan ones, began to take shape, headed by riags (kings), later early feudal states arose on their basis. The combined forces of the Riags carried out raids on Britain and the continent (during these campaigns, part of the Gaelic Scottish tribe moved to the northern regions of Britain). By the beginning of the 5th century, several independent kingdoms existed in Ireland. The most important of these were the states of the Eoganacht dynasty, centered on Cashel (in the south of the island) and the I Neill dynasty, centered on Tara (in the north).

The basic social, economic and political unit of the Irish Gaels was the clan. The land (initially also cattle) was in the common possession of the clan and was distributed among patriarchal families with subsequent periodic redistributions. At the head of the clan was the leader, the supreme power was also exercised by the gatherings of clans within the framework of tribal unions. In the first centuries of our era, there was a separation of the nobility, various categories of the dependent population, slaves, appeared. Extortions in favor of tribal and clan leaders began to acquire a feudal character. The clan system of the Gaels, which combined tribal and early feudal features, was reflected in the Shenhus Mor, a code of ancient Irish law (valid before the invasion of the Anglo-Normans, in some areas of Ireland - until the 16th century), the guardians and interpreters of which were the Bregons.

In the middle of the 5th century, Christianity began to spread in Ireland, associated with the activities of St. Patrick. The Irish Christian Church was formed with an archiepiscopal see in Armagh, the first monasteries appeared. The Church of Ireland developed within the framework of a clan organization. Each clan had its own clergy who lived in a monastery headed by an abbot, usually the heir of the clan leader. Bishops were also usually chosen from people related by ancestral ties to the head of the clan. In the 6th century, Ireland became one of the centers of Christian education, Irish missionaries actively participated in the Christianization of the European continent (the activities of St. Columban, etc.). Ireland was famous for its arts - illustrations for handwritten books, metalwork, sculpture.

The development of Ireland was interrupted at the end of the 8th century by the invasion of the Vikings (the first invasion dates back to 795). Initially, the Vikings made predatory raids on the east coast of Ireland. From the middle of the 9th century, they began to establish their settlements here (Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, Cork, Limerick), using them as outposts to move into the interior of the island, to Britain and to the continent. The conquerors spent the winter months in Ireland and were involved in regional trade.

The internal political situation of Ireland of this period was determined by the constant internecine wars of the rulers of the Irish kingdoms. From 734 until the beginning of the 11th century, power (sometimes only nominally) was in the hands of the I Neill dynasty, the northern and southern branches of which were constantly at war with each other. At the beginning of the 11th century, the ruler of the small kingdom of Dal-Kash, Brian Boru, became the ard-riag (high king) of Ireland. In 1014, at the Battle of Clontarf, he defeated the Viking troops. This victory put an end to the raids of the latter; the Vikings who remained in Ireland were gradually assimilated by the local population.

After the victory over the Vikings, the process of consolidating the Irish lands intensified, the clans began to be liberated from the power of the "local" kings, the positions of the Ard-Riags were strengthened, especially during the reign of Rory (Roderick) O'Connor (1166-86). Trade with neighboring countries has been developed. With the active assistance of the papal throne, attempts were made to streamline the church organization. The Synod of 1152 in Kels (Kyanannas-Mor) recognized the primacy of the pope over the Irish Church, declared tithes to be obligatory for all church fees, authorized the creation of four archbishoprics - Armagh, Dublin, Cashel and Tuam (with the primacy of the throne in Armagh), replacing the old "clan" bishops and priests of the dioceses formed by the clergy.

Ireland in the late 12th - late 15th century. In 1167, the King of Leinster, Diarmid Macmurhade (died 1171), expelled from his possessions by Rory O'Connor, turned to the English King Henry II for help. In 1169-71, the southeastern coast of Ireland was conquered by the Anglo-Norman detachments sent by Henry II, led by the Earl of Pembroke. After the death of Diarmid Macmoorhade, Pembroke declared himself his successor. Not wanting the formation of an independent Norman state in the conquered territories, Henry II landed on the island (in Waterford) on 10/17/1171 and at the convened council in Cashel announced the extension of his power to Ireland. At the same time, he referred to the bull of 1155 of Pope Adrian IV (1154-59), who granted the English king the title of ruler (owner; Lord) of Ireland in order to further carry out church reforms. According to the Treaty of Windsor in 1175, Rory O'Connor recognized the supreme power of Henry II, he was supported by the majority of the Irish nobility. The Anglo-Normans fortified on the southeast coast of Ireland (these territories later became known as the Pale).

In 1177, the son of Henry II, John (the future English king John Landless), was declared the ruler of Ireland. He twice (in 1185 and 1210) visited Ireland, actively contributing to the establishment of English orders here. The management of the Irish lands was entrusted to the governor appointed by the king - the justiciar. A system of division into counties was introduced (by the beginning of the 14th century there were 12), headed by sheriffs and other officials of the king; in 1222, the territory of Ireland, captured by the Anglo-Normans, was subject to the entire code of English laws. From 1297 Ireland had a parliament, which initially consisted of barons and prelates; after 1300 it also included representatives of cities. The indigenous people of Ireland did not participate in the work of Parliament.

With the establishment of English domination in Ireland, the spread of the manorial system began (see Manor), the indigenous population increasingly turned into feudal-dependent peasants. The royal domain increased significantly - the city of Waterford, the sea coast from Dungarvan to Wexford (under Henry II) and part of the lands of Ulster (under John Landless) were annexed to it. Crafts, especially wool weaving, and trade received some development, new cities and rural settlements appeared. In 1192, John granted Dublin a city charter, according to which the inhabitants of the city received the right to their own court, the creation of merchant guilds, were exempted from tolls, etc. Later, other royal cities received the same liberties - Drogheda, Waterford, Limerick, Cork. The economic and social development of the independent part of Ireland - Irishri was hampered by the civil strife of the Irish kings, as well as the constant attempts of the Anglo-Normans to conquer this area. Feudal relations developed slowly, communal agriculture and clan customs were preserved. Most of the population led a semi-nomadic lifestyle.

From the beginning of the 13th century Ireland's connection with England weakened. The positions of the new Anglo-Irish nobility (the Fitzgeralds in eastern Munster, the Butlers in western Munster, the de Burgies in Connacht), which formed as a result of mixing with the Irish tribal nobility and inheriting their lands, noticeably strengthened. In 1315, the Irish and Anglo-Irish nobility, led by Donal O'Neill, revolted against the Anglo-Normans in Ireland, turning to the Scottish king Robert I the Bruce for help. On May 26, 1315, a 6,000-strong detachment landed in Ireland under the command of the brother of Robert I Bruce - Edward, who, after taking possession of northern Ireland, was proclaimed ard-riag in 1316. On 10/14/1318 at Fogart in Ulster, the army of Edward Bruce was defeated by the Anglo-Irish army of John Birmingham, Edward fell in battle. Despite this victory, England's position in Ireland continued to weaken. In 1348, as a result of a plague epidemic, almost all the Anglo-Norman colonists who lived in cities died. In 1366, the Irish Parliament passed the so-called Kilkenny Statutes, according to which the English, under the threat of confiscation of their landed possessions, were forbidden to settle outside the Peil and maintain any relations with the Irish. However, the provisions of these statutes were practically not implemented. At the end of the 14th - 15th centuries, only a narrow strip of coast from Dundalk to Bray remained under the rule of the English king. The absence of a single political center and constant strife had a negative impact on the economic situation of the country. Cattle breeding still remained the predominant branch of the economy, urban crafts developed extremely slowly. Trade, oriented mainly to the needs of the English and Anglo-Irish nobility, was in the hands of foreign merchants. Under the Merchants' Charter of 1303, they were allowed to trade in all city markets of the English territories of Ireland, subject to the payment of a heavy duty to the king.

Ireland at the end of the 15th-17th century. With the coming to power in England of the Tudors, a new stage of the colonization of Ireland began. An important step towards restoring the lost influence was the Poyning Act of 1494, which changed the control system of the conquered region. The Irish Parliament was made completely dependent on the English King and the English Parliament, the Kilkenny Statutes were confirmed. The English colonization of Ireland increased dramatically during the reign of Henry VIII. In 1536, he suppressed the rebellion of the governor of Ireland - T. Fitzgerald, and with the beginning of the Reformation in England, he confiscated the lands and property of the Irish Catholic Church in favor of the crown (based on the decisions of the Dublin Parliament adopted in 1536-41). In 1541, the Irish Parliament declared Henry VIII King of Ireland. For the first time, representatives of the indigenous population of the island, mainly supporters of the Reformation, took part in the work of this parliament. Having received the title of King of Ireland, Henry VIII began to actively pursue a policy of granting Irish lands to clan leaders (he accepted subject territories from the leaders, after which he granted them back as his direct vassals on the rights of a knightly holding with the assignment of the corresponding title). The vassals of the English king were the leaders of Ulster Con O'Neill (Earl Tyrone), Hugh O'Donnell (Lord Tyrconnell), and others.

In 1554, Mary Tudor restored Catholicism in England and Ireland, but the confiscated Irish abbeys were not returned to the Church. In addition, during the years of her reign, the practice of confiscating land from the Irish and Anglo-Irish (as a rule, as a result of accusing them of treason) and granting them to the English lords became widespread. English settlers settled on these lands, Irish peasants turned into day laborers and tenants. The system of landlordism began to take shape.

In 1560, Elizabeth I Tudor extended the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity to Ireland, initiating the formation of the Irish Anglican Church, although the majority of the country's population remained committed to Catholicism. At the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, Munster, Ulster and part of Leinster, which had not previously been part of the Pale, were colonized, they began to be settled by English and Scottish colonists, and division into counties was introduced. Forts and forts were built. The State Council began to function (under the governor of Ireland), whose members were appointed from representatives of the royal administration, English and Anglo-Irish aristocrats. In 1562, a special court, the Court of the Castle Chamber, was created to deal with cases of state crimes (according to its functions, it corresponded to the English Star Chamber). The Irish Parliament from a unicameral representative body turned into a bicameral one, its composition was significantly expanded by knights and citizens loyal to the royal authority. The answer to the policy pursued by the English crown in Ireland was the uprisings, led by clan leaders Shan O'Neill, Desmond (see Desmond uprising), Tyrone and Tyrconnell, O'Neill Hugh (see Tyrone and Tyrconnell uprising 1595-1603). All these uprisings were brutally suppressed by the British authorities. On March 11, 1605, when almost the entire island was under the rule of England, the complete elimination of the clan system was announced. In accordance with the proclamation of July 15, 1606, a revision of titles and rights to land began.

Massive land confiscations in Ulster in 1610-11 under James I Stuart caused the major Irish Rebellion of 1641-52, which came at the time of the civil wars in England (see English Revolution of the 17th century). On August 15, 1649, troops of the English Parliament under the command of O. Cromwell landed in Ireland to suppress it. In 9 months, Cromwell conquered the entire island. On the basis of the Act on the disposition of Ireland (8/12/1652) and the Satisfaction Act (9/26/1653), massive land confiscations were carried out, and the settlement of Ireland by retired soldiers of the parliamentary army began. Many Irish Catholics were driven to the west of Ireland (Connacht) or left the country. About 34 thousand Irish soldiers and officers moved to Flanders, France and Spain.

The Anglo-Irish nobility supported the restoration of the Stuart dynasty to the English throne, which forced Charles II of Stuart to make a minor revision of the earlier confiscations. In 1660, the Irish Parliament, with the consent of Charles II, passed an act abolishing the knightly holdings, freeing the large landowners of Ireland from land dependence on the crown.

During the "Glorious Revolution" in Ireland, a new uprising broke out (1688-91), which James II tried to use to his advantage. On March 12, 1689, he landed in Ireland and from there, relying on Irish Catholics loyal to him, led the resistance to William III of Orange.

On July 11, 1690, the English forces under the command of William III of Orange on the Boyne defeated the troops of James II. The Irish rebels, however, successfully resisted the English army for some time. In 1691, the Treaty of Limerick, which was beneficial to the Irish, was concluded. In exchange for recognition of the authority of the new king, Irish Catholics were guaranteed freedom of religion, the preservation of land ownership, titles and other privileges. However, when this treaty was ratified by the Irish Parliament, many of its clauses were omitted or changed.

At the end of the 17th - 1st half of the 18th century, the British authorities began to attack the rights of Irish Catholics. A whole series of so-called punitive laws was adopted, depriving most of the country's population of political and, to a large extent, civil rights. Catholics were forbidden to hold public office, to be elected to parliament (1692) and to participate in parliamentary elections (1727), in a number of areas - to engage in professional activities, to own land. In 1720, the English Parliament was given the right to legislate for Ireland; in 1751, the House of Commons of the Irish Parliament was denied the right to dispose of tax revenues.

The economic situation in Ireland in the early 18th century deteriorated significantly. In addition to the Navigation Acts of 1663 and 1670, which prohibited Ireland's direct trade with other English colonies and England itself, in 1698-99 ruinous duties were introduced on the export of Irish woolen and other products, and in 1731 the importation of hops into Ireland from any country except England was prohibited. , in 1746 - the importation of Irish glassware into England. The measures of the British authorities led to the almost complete destruction of the centers of handicraft and manufacturing industry in Ireland (only the production of linen fabrics, distillation and the beginnings of cotton production remained; large-scale manufactory and factory-type enterprises appeared in Ireland only at the end of the 18th century). Increased tax oppression, combined with the payment of tithes in favor of the Anglican Church, contributed to the degradation of agriculture. The situation was aggravated by crop failures and famine of 1740-41 (about 400 thousand people died). By the end of the 18th century, Dublin remained the only major city in Ireland. Most of the country (with the exception of Ulster) was occupied by pastures. The undermining of the traditional economy of Ireland caused a wave of peasant uprisings in the 1760s, led by the secret organizations "White Guys", "Oak Guys", etc. Mass emigration of the Irish began, primarily to the British North American colonies.

The War of Independence in North America 1775-83, the French Revolution of the 18th century contributed to the development of the Irish national liberation movement. Initially, it was closely associated with the activities of Irish volunteer detachments, the creation of which was authorized by the British authorities in the conditions of the war with the American colonies and France and Spain supporting them. Volunteers organized delegate meetings, convened provincial representative conventions, at which they condemned the policy pursued by the British authorities. The opposition was also gaining strength in the Irish Parliament (G. Grattan, G. Flood, and others). Under its pressure, many punitive laws were repealed, navigational acts were relaxed, and some protective duties were introduced for Irish goods. In 1782, the Irish Parliament gained complete legislative independence from Great Britain. These and other political achievements contributed to certain shifts in the economic life of the country. The export of agricultural products increased, Irish merchants gained access to colonial markets, including the market of India. At the same time, the economic development of Ireland was held back by numerous factors, primarily the survival of feudal relations in agriculture.

At the end of the 18th century, the influence of radicals (T. Wolf Tone, E. Fitzgerald, and others) in the Irish national movement, who advocated the complete independence of Ireland from Great Britain, increased. The culmination of their activities was the Irish Rebellion of 1798. It was brutally suppressed by the authorities and used by them as a pretext for the liquidation of Ireland's parliamentary autonomy. In 1800 the English and Irish Parliaments passed the Act of Union (see Anglo-Irish Union of 1801). 1/1/1801 Ireland and Great Britain are united in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Irish Parliament was abolished and the British Parliament regained the power to legislate for Ireland. In the House of Commons of Ireland, only 100 seats were provided, in the House of Lords - 32.

Ireland in 1801-1949. In union with Great Britain in the early 19th century, Ireland became a supplier of agricultural raw materials and cheap labor. The abolition of protectionist duties and the policy of free trade had negative consequences for the young Irish industry, which could not compete with the English. Only the production of linen fabrics, beer, whiskey, bacon, as well as shipbuilding (in the north-eastern regions of the country) received development. The agricultural sector was dominated by Catholic tenants who cultivated small plots of land on the basis of short-term leases and did not have the right to redeem them. The rise in food prices during the Napoleonic Wars made it profitable to break up allotments in order to increase rents. The rent for land grew rapidly (was 2-3 times higher than in England), the standard of living of the majority of rural residents was steadily declining. Protestant landowners left the country, leaving estates in the care of agents interested only in extracting maximum profit. Several lean years in a row ended in a national catastrophe - the "Great Famine" of 1845-1849 (about 1 million people died from starvation and disease, in 1845-55 more than 1.5 million people left the country). Significant demographic shifts, a sharp reduction in the number of small tenants, and the abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846 (which led to a decrease in demand for Irish grain on the English market) accelerated the agrarian revolution. Its results were the transformation of cattle breeding, whose products were exported to England, into the most profitable branch of Irish agriculture, the emergence of large farms and the development of capitalist relations in the agricultural sector.

In the 1820s, in the face of punitive laws, representatives of Catholics, who made up 90% of the population of Ireland, demanded that they be granted political and civil rights. The movement for the emancipation of Catholics under the leadership of the lawyer D. O'Connell and the Catholic Association of Ireland created by him in 1823 acquired a mass character, was supported by the Catholic peasantry and the church. In 1829, the British Parliament passed the Emancipation Bill for Catholics, which granted them political rights, including the right to be elected to Parliament, subject to an oath of allegiance to the English monarch, and to enter the military and civil service (except for higher positions). The emancipation movement contributed to the further politicization of Irish society. In the 1830s, peasant uprisings began against the payment of tithes to the Protestant Church; in the 1840s, a movement of repealers was formed - supporters of the abolition (English repeal) of the Anglo-Irish Union by constitutional means. A radical group Young Ireland emerged from among the Ripilers, whose ideologists formulated the doctrine of an independent Irish nation, uniting adherents of all Irish denominations. Against the movement to abolish the union with Great Britain, which became very influential in Ireland after 1842, the British authorities took a number of tough and effective measures. A commission was set up under the leadership of Lord Devon to study the Irish agrarian system and reform it; in 1845, acts were passed establishing Irish universities for Catholics and dissenters. Under the influence of the European revolutions of 1848-1849, a wave of uprisings swept through Ireland, led by the Irish Confederation, which was formed in January 1847 after the split of Young Ireland. The revolutionary tradition was continued by the Irish Fenians. The Irish Republican Brotherhood, founded in 1858, proclaimed as its goal the revolutionary struggle for the Irish Republic and set about preparing a nationwide uprising. Despite the conspiracy, the British government managed to uncover the plans of the conspirators and prevent a large-scale, coordinated action. On March 5, 1867, scattered Fenian uprisings in 11 eastern and southern counties were suppressed by the authorities.

In the 2nd half of the 19th century, the agrarian question still played an important role in the life of Irish society. A mass peasant movement developed in the country. In 1850, the Tenants' Rights League was founded in Dublin, demanding the settlement of the terms of the rent, against the arbitrariness of the landlords. The program of the National Land League of 1879-82 included demands for a phased solution of the agrarian question up to the complete destruction of landlordism. Under the pressure of the mass peasant movement, the Gladstone bills of 1870 and 1881 were adopted, which laid the foundation for agrarian reform in Ireland.

In the Irish national movement in the last third of the 19th century, the struggle for the granting of Irish self-government within the British Empire (see Home Rule) took center stage. At the end of the 19th century, a cultural-nationalist movement arose, the main slogan of which was the revival of Irish culture, language (Gaelic revival) and the study of national history. Led by the Gaelic League, it contributed to the development of an Irish national identity; many politicians came out of the ranks of this movement, who led the struggle for the independence of Ireland in subsequent years.

The adoption of the Wyndham land law in 1903 was a turning point in the liquidation of the system of landlordism in Ireland. The state, acting as an intermediary, paid the landlords a significant amount, which was then collected with interest from the peasants in the form of long-term redemption payments. The Wyndham Act created favorable conditions for the development of capitalist relations in the Irish economy. The rapid progress of industries for the industrial processing of agricultural raw materials (flour-grinding, tobacco, oil-pressing industries) began.

In the cities, the number of small factories and workshops owned by the Irish and producing shoes, textiles, etc. grew. Cooperation was widespread in the agricultural sector. By 1914, up to 1,000 cooperative societies operated in Ireland, in which more than 105,000 people consisted. At the beginning of the 20th century, Ireland became an important area for the application of British capital, which was invested primarily in transport, trading, insurance companies, banks and some industries (primarily in Ulster, where the share of Protestants reached 60%; this contributed to the formation of an industrial proletariat there). and the big bourgeoisie). The standard of living of the population of Ireland was significantly lower than in England, in particular, wages were lower. In terms of the incidence of tuberculosis and infant mortality, Irish cities were far ahead of English ones. According to the 1911 census, most of the population of Ireland still lived in the countryside, 50% of the economically active agricultural population were farmers, 40% were the so-called family workers and seasonal workers, and 9% were the rural proletariat.

Ireland's political party system in the early 20th century reflected the state of the Irish national movement. The main political force representing the interests of the Irish nationalists was the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP), its deputies occupied 90 of the 120 seats allocated to the Irish in the British Parliament. The IPP, which demanded limited autonomy for Ireland within the British Empire, enjoyed the support of the majority of Irish Catholics. In 1905, a new national party, Sinn Fein, emerged, which advocated the creation of an independent Irish state and put forward in 1908 a program to overcome Ireland's economic backwardness through the efficient use of its own resources. Leftist views were held by the Irish Republican Brotherhood (the heirs of the Fenians) - an underground organization with a vague socio-economic program that advocated the creation of an independent Irish republic through armed struggle. The political interests of the workers were represented by the Irish Labor Party (since 1912) and the Congress of Trade Unions. On the extreme right flank of the party-political system of Ireland were the so-called unionists, who advocated the preservation of the Anglo-Irish union, against any economic and political changes.

In 1912-14, the Unionists, together with the British Conservatives, opposed the 3rd Home Rule Bill, which brought the country to the brink of civil war. An underground Provisional Government was formed in Ulster, the Ulster Volunteer Corps was created, ready for active operations to seize power in the province. To protect Home Rule in 1913, a mass paramilitary organization, the Irish Volunteers, arose. In September 1914, the Home Rule Act, which did not apply to part of the Ulster territory, was passed, but its implementation was delayed until the end of the 1st World War.

The war contributed to the rise of the Irish national liberation movement. The Irish Rebellion of 1916 led to the radicalization and polarization of Irish society. The IPP, which advocated military cooperation with England, lost its positions, and the popularity of Sinn Fein increased sharply. The Irish National Liberation Revolution and the Civil War of 1919-23 forced the British ruling circles to restructure relations with Ireland. Under the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, Ireland, under the name of the Irish Free State, received the status of a British dominion and became a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations (see Commonwealth). However, the country was divided - 6 counties of the Irish province of Ulster remained in the United Kingdom as the province of Northern Ireland.

The victory in the civil war of the right wing of Sinn Fein, whose representatives were supporters of the Anglo-Irish treaty and received extensive military and financial assistance from the British government, did not allow Ireland to achieve complete independence, economic and political unity.

In 1923, the right-wing shinfeiners united in the Cumman-on-Gael party, headed by W. T. Cosgrave, who headed the Irish government in 1922. Cumman-on-Gael, which expressed the interests of Irish business circles closely associated with British capital, was in power until 1932. In 1933, after merging with the fascist group "Blueshirts" and the Center Party, it was transformed into the United Ireland Party, then renamed Fine Gael. In the conditions of the world economic crisis of the late 1920s and early 1930s, which had a significant impact on Ireland, the republican party Fianna Foyle, led by I. De Valera, came to power in 1932, representing the interests of the national bourgeoisie and advocating the creation of a developed national economy and achieving the full independence of the country. The De Valera government canceled the parliamentary oath to the British crown, achieved the liquidation of British naval bases in Ireland. The attempts made by the ultra-right forces in the summer of 1933 and in the autumn of 1934 to carry out a coup and establish an authoritarian regime in the country were resolutely rebuffed. In 1937, a new constitution was adopted declaring Ireland a "sovereign democratic state of Eire", only nominally associated with Great Britain. Article 2 of the Constitution declared the refusal to recognize the fact of the accession of Northern Ireland to Great Britain and emphasized that the territory belonging to the Irish "people consists of the whole island of Ireland, the islands adjacent to it and the territorial sea." Article 3 extended the laws of Eire to Northern Ireland.

Under the protection of high customs tariffs and with the active participation of the state in Ireland in the 1930s, a large number of enterprises were built, the energy base of industry was significantly strengthened and expanded; assistance to small farmers. Government measures to strengthen the independent national economy caused opposition from the British ruling circles and related forces inside Ireland. In 1932-38 Great Britain tried to put pressure on Ireland by sharply raising import duties on Irish agricultural products. At the same time, British capital held important positions in the country's economy. Agriculture experienced constant difficulties, emigration from Ireland continued. At the beginning of the 2nd World War, the government of Ireland declared its neutrality, motivating it by the impossibility of entering into a military alliance with Great Britain, which held part of the territory of Ireland.

Ireland after 1949. In the 1948 elections, Fianna Foyle failed to win a majority of the popular vote. A coalition government headed by Fine Gael (Prime Minister - J. Costello) was formed. It passed a law (entered into force 18.4.1949) on the full sovereignty of Ireland and its withdrawal from the Commonwealth. The Costello cabinet announced its intention to continue its policy of neutrality and refused to sign the North Atlantic Treaty. From that point on, Fine Gael and Fianna Foyle alternated in power, with the Labor Party playing the role of junior partner in government coalitions.

The 1950s were marked by a lack of economic and political stability for Ireland. Ireland remained an agrarian country, industry and construction accounted for 28% of GNP, and agriculture accounted for 32% (it employed about 40% of the economically active population, agricultural products accounted for 60% of Irish exports). Animal husbandry was still the leading branch of agriculture. Emigration in the 1950s was higher than the natural population increase in Ireland; its number was declining by 12.5 thousand people a year (by 1961 it amounted to 2.8 million people; it decreased by 5% compared with the beginning of the 1930s). The non-participation of Ireland during the 2nd World War in the anti-Hitler coalition complicated its position in the international arena in the post-war period. Only in 1955 the country was admitted to the UN.

In 1957-73, Fianna Foyle was in power again, the post of prime minister was held by I. De Valera (until 1959), C. Lemass (until 1966), J. Lynch (until 1973). A number of reforms were carried out in the country, in 1958 an economic development program was adopted, followed by two more (1963-68 and 1969-72). Ireland moved away from the policy of protectionism, the export orientation of its economy increased, and a line was drawn to attract foreign capital by providing it with tax benefits. As a result of the successful implementation of economic programs, Ireland turned into an industrial-agrarian country, where the share of industry in GDP by 1973 exceeded the share of agriculture by almost 2 times. New industries emerged: metallurgy, chemical industry, mechanical engineering, electronics production, etc. In terms of economic growth (4% per year), Ireland overtook many countries. The level and quality of life of the Irish increased markedly, unemployment and emigration decreased. Ireland's accession to the EEC (1973) paved the way for its integration into European political and economic structures while maintaining the traditional policy of neutrality. Since the mid-1970s, Ireland began to receive financial subsidies from European organizations, most of which were directed to the development of science, education and training. By the end of the 1970s, however, Ireland's economic development slowed down. In the 1980s, inflation sharply increased (an average of 20% per year), the unemployment rate reached 15-17% of the economically active population (the worst figure among the EEC countries), the real wages of industrial workers decreased by 4%, consumption - by 8, 5%. As a result of increased emigration (about 50 thousand people left the country every year), the population of Ireland again decreased.

As a result of the deterioration of economic and financial conditions, public debt, including external debt, has increased. In order to stabilize the economy, the Irish government developed a national recovery program, which included measures to control finances, reduce loans, and create new jobs. Without refusing to attract foreign investment and companies, it was supposed to focus on the development of national industry and its deeper integration into the world economic system.

In 1989, an economic boom began in the country, which at the end of the 20th century was called the Irish “economic miracle” (the name “Celtic Tiger” was assigned to Ireland). The presence of a skilled and cheap labor force (with knowledge of English), low taxes, tax incentives and subsidies for investors, help from the global Irish diaspora, as well as EU membership and other favorable economic and political factors attracted large companies to the country (primarily American ), which created in Ireland a number of modern science-intensive industries oriented to the markets of the EU countries. In 1990-95, the volume of GDP increased annually by an average of 5-6%, in 1995-2000 due to the growth in foreign investment - by 9-10% or more. In 2000-05, despite some negative trends in the development of the world economy (the decline in 2001-02, etc.), the growth rate of the Irish economy averaged about 5% per year. There was a rapid development of the information technology sector, an increase in construction volumes; continued inflow of foreign investment (over 100 billion dollars in 2000-04). In 2006, the volume of GDP increased by 5.2% (in comparable prices), the total investment amounted to about 28% of GDP. Economic growth was accompanied by a decrease in inflation (down to 2.6%) and a decrease in unemployment (up to 4% of the economically active population). The creation of new jobs and an improvement in the quality of life not only reduced emigration, but also ensured an influx of labor, in particular from Eastern European countries.

One of the important internal political tasks facing the Republic of Ireland after 1949 was to limit the influence of the Catholic Church on the state and society. Only in 1995, in a referendum, the Irish voted by a minimal majority (50.3%) to exclude the clause prohibiting divorce from the Constitution.

Ireland's relations with Great Britain in the post-war period were complicated by the issue of Northern Ireland. The Government of Ireland repeatedly insistently demanded that London return Northern Ireland to the Republic of Ireland. Extremist groups and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) tried to resolve the Northern Irish issue using violence and terror. This contributed to the aggravation of the conflict in Northern Ireland itself between the Catholic Irish, who advocated the "reunification of the national territory", and the Protestants, who supported the union with Great Britain. Beginning in the 1960s, the conflict took on the character of a civil war. In the face of an escalation of violence, the Government of the Republic of Ireland came out in support of a peaceful solution to the Northern Ireland problem. In a series of negotiations with the British government, it recognized the need to take into account the interests and cultural traditions of not only Catholics, but also the Protestant part of the population of Northern Ireland, and also to share political power between the Catholic and Protestant communities. These and other principles were enshrined in the Suningdale Agreement of 1973 (its implementation was thwarted by Northern Irish Protestants), and then repeated in the Anglo-Irish Agreement of 1985 and the Anglo-Irish Declaration of 1993. In the Irish government signed on April 10, 1998 in Belfast (since 1997 headed by B. Ahern) agreement with the British government and the Northern Irish Catholic and Protestant communities (the so-called Good Friday Agreement), the Irish side abandoned the demand for the immediate transfer of Northern Ireland to Ireland. In accordance with the agreement reached, Northern Ireland should remain within the United Kingdom as long as it suits the wishes of the people who live there. At the same time, the British and Irish governments pledged to set in motion all mechanisms for the formation of a united Ireland, if the people of Northern Ireland so desire. The governance structure of Northern Ireland provided for the creation of a Council of Ministers, which was to include representatives from both the north and the south, as well as the formation of bodies responsible for implementing the agreement and acting on a transboundary principle or across the entire island. The change in approach to resolving the issue of "reunification of the national territory" was approved in a referendum on May 22, 1998 by 94% of the Irish. In the subsequent period, the Irish government, in close contact with London, took steps to implement the agreements reached, including the disarmament of paramilitary groups.

From the early 1970s, Ireland began to play a more prominent role in the international arena. She was represented three times in the UN Security Council, in 1996 she chaired the EU. Ireland signed the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and joined the Eurozone in 2002. In 1999, the country joined the NATO Partnership for Peace program.

Diplomatic relations between Ireland and the USSR were established in September 1973. In September 1999, the first official visit to Russia by the Prime Minister of Ireland took place in the history of bilateral relations. In February 2001, Foreign Minister B. Cowen paid a working visit to Moscow. Sessions of the Intergovernmental Committee for the Development of Business Cooperation are held annually (the last, 6th session was held on March 29, 2006 in Moscow), at which issues of trade, economic and investment cooperation are discussed in detail. The volume of trade between Russia and Ireland in 2005 amounted to 996.6 million dollars. The main Russian exports are mineral fertilizers, timber, synthetic rubber, and metals. Imports are dominated by telecommunications, computer equipment and office equipment, meat and dairy products. Relations with Ireland are developing dynamically in the field of education, science and culture.

Lit .: Orlova M. E. Ireland in search of ways of independent development. 1945-1948. M., 1973; Lyons F. S. Ireland since the famine. L., 1973; Mongait A. L. Archeology of Western Europe. Stone Age. M., 1973; he is. Archeology of Western Europe. Bronze and Iron Ages. M., 1974; Kolpakov A.D. Ireland on the way to revolution. 1900-1918. M., 1976; New gill history of Ireland. Oxf., 1976-2005. Vol. 1-9; History of Ireland. M., 1980; Saprykin Yu. M. English conquest of Ireland (XII-XVII centuries). M., 1982; Politics and society in contemporary Ireland. Alderchot, 1986; Canny N. Kingdom and Colony: Ireland in the Atlantic World, 1560-1800. Balt.; L., 1988; Foster R. F. Modern Ireland. 1600-1972. L., 1988; Lee J. J. Ireland 1912-1985. Camb., 1989; Traditions and myths of medieval Ireland. M., 1991; Miroshnikov A. V. Irish Republic. Voronezh, 1997; Britain and Ireland, 900-1300: insular responses to medieval European change. Camb., 1999; O'Brien M., O'Brien C.S. A concise history of Ireland. 3rd ed. L., 1999; Collins N., Cradden T. Irish politics today. Manchester, 2001; Polyakova E. Yu. Ireland in the XX century. M., 2002; Bondarenko GV Mythology of the space of Ancient Ireland. M., 2003; Paseta S. Modern Ireland. Oxf., 2003; Revolution, counter-revolution and union: Ireland in the 1790s. Camb., 2003; Ferriter D. The transformation of Ireland 1900-2000. L., 2005; Medieval Ireland: an encyclopedia. N.Y.; L., 2005; Byrne F.J. Kings and High Rulers of Ireland. St. Petersburg, 2006; Afanasiev G. E. History of Ireland. M., 2007.

V. S. Nefyodov (archeology); E. Yu. Polyakova (since the beginning of the 19th century).

economy

Ireland is one of the highly developed countries in the world. The volume of GDP is 177.2 billion dollars (according to purchasing power parity, 2006), per capita 41.8 thousand dollars (4th place in the world after Luxembourg, Norway and the USA). Human Development Index 0.956 (2004, 4th among 177 countries in the world after Norway, Iceland and Australia).

At the beginning of the 21st century, the Irish economy has a pronounced export orientation: over 80% of Irish manufacturing products (by value) and over 50% of agricultural products are intended for export. At the same time, over 80% of all industrial raw materials are imported; the share of imported products in the Irish market for machinery, equipment, chemicals and other types of finished products is high. Accelerated economic growth has caused a number of negative trends: the problems of social inequality have aggravated in the country (2nd place after the United States among the economically developed countries of the world in terms of the difference in income levels between the richest and poorest segments of the population, 2004), the cost of labor, rent of space has increased and other production costs. Ireland, integrated into the world economy through the global networks of TNCs, has become extremely vulnerable to changes in world market conditions and in the policies of foreign investors (for example, the threat of closing a number of enterprises by American companies Motorola in 2006, Pfizer in 2007-09, etc. ).

About 60% of GDP is created in the service sector, about 37% in industry and construction, and about 3% in agriculture, forestry and fisheries (2005). There are 2 sectors in the Irish economy - foreign and national. Foreign companies account for over 1/2 of the GDP and 92% of the value of the country's exports (2006). In a number of sectors of the economy, companies with a predominance of national capital are developing rapidly (Table 2).

The state plays an important role in the economy. State-owned companies control key sectors of energy, transport, education, healthcare, etc. In total, 325 thousand people work in state institutions and enterprises (about 18% of all employees, 2004), of which 29.5% work in healthcare institutions, education - 23.7%, central and local authorities - 21.9%, in law enforcement agencies - 3.9%, in the armed forces - 3.6%, in state enterprises of industry, transport and services - 17.4%. Small and medium-sized businesses are developing. For example, companies with less than 20 employees account for about 60% of the total number of enterprises and about 10% of those employed in the country's manufacturing industry.

Industry. One of the key and fastest growing sectors of the Irish economy. It accounts for about 15% of the employed (298 thousand people) and about 17% of GDP (2005). Since the beginning of the 1990s, the value of sales of industrial products has increased by an average of 10% per year and by 2005 had more than quadrupled (to about 118 billion euros). The growth of industrial production (2006) is about 5%.

About 62% of the cost of sales of industrial products falls on the share of 3 new high-tech industries (2005): chemical, pharmaceutical and chemical industries (26%), electronic and electrical industries (25%), production and replication of information products, including software, on magnetic ( audio, video cassettes, etc.) and optical (CD, DVD, etc.) media (11%). Among the traditional industries, the food industry stands out, including the production of beverages and tobacco products (21%). Sales volumes of other industries (energy, woodworking, production of building materials, metallurgical, light industry, etc.) are about 17%. From 1994 to 2003, the value of sales of enterprises in the chemical-pharmaceutical and chemical industries increased 6.6 times, electronic and electrical engineering - 3.5 times, food - 1.6 times. Over the same period, the production volumes of the textile, clothing and leather and footwear industries decreased by 2.5 times.

The share of enterprises owned by foreign companies (total 1273 in 2005) accounts for about 4/5 of the value of sales and about 1/2 of the number of people employed in industry, including the share of American firms about 2/3 and 1/3 respectively. Foreign companies dominate in new industries - electronics (83% of sales and 84% of employees), chemical-pharmaceutical and chemical (respectively 96% and 80%), in replication of software products (80% and 30%). National enterprises (private and state, 7390 in total) dominate in the energy sector, as well as in traditional industries - food, light, etc.

Until the 1970s, Ireland's energy industry was mainly based on its own resources of peat, coal and hydropower, and from the mid-1970s on natural gas. Since the beginning of the 1990s, energy consumption has increased on average by 3.2% per year and in 2005 reached 15.9 million tons (in oil equivalent). In the structure of the fuel and energy balance, oil and oil products account for 58% of energy consumption (2005), natural gas - 22%, coal - 13%, peat - 4% (15% in 1990), biomass (firewood) - 1%, other renewable types of energy (hydropower and wind power) - 2%. The demand for crude oil (3.3 million tons, 2005) and the bulk of the demand for petroleum products (5.8 million tons, mainly diesel fuel, as well as gasoline, aviation kerosene, etc.) are covered by imports. In the south of Ireland, in Whitegate (County Cork), there is the only oil refinery in the country (capacity of 3.5 million tons of crude oil processing per year). Natural gas consumption 3.9 billion m 3 (2005). Natural gas production (0.4 billion m 3 in 2005; 2.7 billion m 3 in 1996) is carried out at two fields in the Cork area: Kinsale Head offshore (since the mid-1970s) and Seven Heads onshore (since 2003). Work is underway (2007) to prepare for the exploitation of the Corrib offshore field off the western coast of the country (reserves 20-30 billion m 3; gas production is planned to begin no earlier than 2008). About 90% of the natural gas consumed (3.5 billion m 3 , 2005) is imported from the UK through a gas pipeline laid from the coast of Scotland (capacity 11 billion m 3 per year). Peat remains the traditional type of fuel in everyday life, as well as for generating electricity at thermal power plants. Peat extraction (4.4 million tons in 2005; about 8 million tons in 1990) is declining due to low profitability and depletion of the richest deposits. The main mining area is the so-called Big Swamps (in the central part of the country). The extraction of hard coal was completely stopped in 1993 due to its low quality and high cost. Imported coal (2.6 million tons in 2005) is mainly used in thermal power plants. The main ports and coal import terminals are Dublin, Cork, Monipoint (County Clare), Foynes (near Limerick).

The installed capacity of power plants is 6 thousand MW (2005). Electricity production is 25 billion kWh, including about 91% at thermal power plants (of which 49% are thermal power plants running on natural gas, 24% on coal, about 21% on fuel oil, over 6% on peat). Among the largest thermal power plants are Poolbeg, near Dublin (1020 MW, on natural gas and fuel oil), Aghada, near Cork (540 MW, mainly on natural gas, partly on diesel fuel); among those working on coal - TPP in Monipoint (915 MW). Dublin and Cork have small biogas-fired thermal power plants. Hydroelectric power plants generate about 4% of electricity. The pumped storage power plant (pumped storage power plant) "Turlough Hill" in County Wicklow (292 MW) is allocated; among others, the Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power plant on the Shannon River (85 MW, built in the 1920s), as well as the Erne (65 MW), Liffey (38 MW) and Lee (27 MW) hydroelectric power plants, built in 1940-1950 -s years; numerous mini-hydroelectric power stations on small rivers. Wind power plants (about 50 complexes with a total capacity of 500 MW) provide about 5% of electricity. Over 50 wind farms with a total capacity of about 800 MW are under construction and design (2007); the world's largest complex of wind power plants is being created on the east coast of the country (near the city of Arklow). Work is underway (2007) to connect the power systems of Ireland and Northern Ireland and further - with the power systems of Great Britain and mainland Europe.

Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented by the production of alumina (raw material for the aluminum industry), as well as the extraction and enrichment of polymetallic ores. Alumina production 1.5 million tons (2005). The raw material for the Aughinish Alumina alumina refinery (owned by the Russian company RUSAL), located near the city of Limerick (production capacity 1.8 million tons per year), is bauxite imported from Guinea, partly from Australia and Brazil. All produced alumina is supplied outside the country, including to Russia. The extraction of polymetallic ores is carried out in the county of Meath (at the Tara mine, the largest in Europe) by the Swedish company Boliden, as well as in the county of Kilkenny - at the mines owned by the British company AngloAmericap and the Irish Arcon. Production of zinc concentrates 429 thousand tons (in terms of metal, 2005; 1st place in Europe), lead concentrates 64 thousand tons, silver about 6 tons. Zinc concentrates are exported, lead concentrates are partially used domestically for metal production (about 20 thousand tons of lead, 2005). The pig steel plant in County Cork (production capacity of about 0.5 million tons of steel per year) closed in 2001 as unprofitable.

Mechanical engineering is the leading industry (about 27% of sales value and 1/3 of the total number of people employed in industrial production, 2005). Over 90% of the value of mechanical engineering products is accounted for by the electronic and electrical industry (EEP). The EEP structure includes: production of personal computers and office equipment (58-60% of sales value), telecommunications equipment (about 20%), electrical products (8-9%), instrumentation products (8-9%), automotive electronics (about 3%). In terms of production of personal computers (about 12 million pieces, 2005), Ireland is not inferior to Great Britain and Germany, and in terms of the value of their exports (18.4 billion euros, 2006) it ranks first in Europe. The main manufacturers are the American companies Dell (plant in Limerick, production capacity up to 30 thousand computers per day, average annual sales of about 10 billion euros), as well as Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Apple. The production of components is developed - microprocessors ("Intel"), microcircuits ("Analog Devices"), information carriers, including memory blocks ("Hewlett-Packard", "EMC"), disk drives and multimedia tools ("Creative Labs"). Leading manufacturers: office equipment - American companies "Xerox" (copier systems and printers) and "Hewlett-Packard" (printers), telecommunications equipment - French company "Alcatel-Lucent", electrical products - British "Gien Dimplex" (large plant for the production of household electric heaters and heating systems in Louth County, near Dundalk; about 7 thousand employees, average annual sales of about 1.5 billion euros), medical, optical equipment and devices - American companies Boston Scientific, Medtronic, " Bausch & Lomb "and others. The largest enterprise for the production of automotive electronics (Irish statistics stands out as a sub-sector of transport engineering) is a plant in Mallow (Cork County) of the German company Kostal (sales of about 350 million euros, 2005). The main centers of the EEP are Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford, Dundalk. A significant part of the industry's enterprises is located in the so-called research and industrial parks. Large enterprises predominate, often with their own R&D departments. About 70% of the industry's total sales are accounted for by enterprises with more than 200 employees, in the production of computers and office equipment - over 90% (including about 85% of enterprises with more than 500 employees).

A fast-growing and important industry (about 12% of the total value of sales of industrial products in the country, 2005) - the production and replication of information products, including magnetic and optical media, including software products (over 90% of industry sales; production of these products international statistics usually refers to the electronic industry), on paper (publishing and printing industry - about 10%). Ireland is one of the world's leading manufacturers and the world's 1st exporter of software (about 1/2 of the value of sales of software products in the EU). In Ireland, there are enterprises of all the world's largest developers and manufacturers of software - Microsoft (sales over 8 billion euros, 2005), Oracle (about 2 billion euros), Symantec, Google, Yahoo , "Xilinx", etc. The main centers of the industry are Dublin, Cork, Galway.

The chemical-pharmaceutical and chemical industry (over 1/4 of the value of sales of industrial products and about 1/2 of the country's merchandise exports, 2006) is the second most important industrial sector after mechanical engineering. About 90% of production volumes fall on the share of pharmaceutical products, including finished drugs and their active ingredients. In terms of pharmaceutical production (over 40 billion euros, 2006) and its exports (37.5 billion euros), Ireland is second only to France, Great Britain and Germany in Europe, and in terms of net exports (exports minus imports) it ranks first in Europe. the world. All the world's leading pharmaceutical companies are represented in the industry: American Pfizer, Abbott, Wyeth, Johnson & Johnson, Schering-Plough; British "GlaxoSmithKline" and "AstraZeneca"; Swiss "Novartis" and others. The largest national pharmaceutical company - "Elan" (sales of 427 million euros, 2005). Most pharmaceutical companies (many of them have their own R&D departments) are located in Dublin, Cork, Limerick, Galway, Sligo. Among the branches of the chemical industry, plastics processing stands out (sales value of 1.5 billion euros, 10 thousand employees, 2005), as well as the production of synthetic detergents (the plant of the American company Procter & Gamble, near Limerick, etc.) and adhesives (the plant German firm "Henkel" in Dublin).

The food industry (including the production of beverages and tobacco products) ranks 3rd among the industrial sectors of Ireland in terms of production scale, largely focuses on local raw materials (over 50% of the value, 2005) and the domestic market (about 70% of sales). Leading industries - meat and dairy; the production of beverages, as well as the bakery, sugar and confectionery, and fishing industries are developed. Production of main types of food products (2005): meat - about 1 million tons, butter - 141 thousand tons (3rd place in Western Europe after Germany and France), cheese - 119 thousand tons, sugar - 205 thousand tons; whiskey production - about 10 million liters, beer - 900 million liters (about 220 liters per 1 inhabitant of the country). Irish exports of food products, including agricultural products (about $7 billion, 2005), traditionally exceed imports (about $3 billion). Ireland ranks first in Europe in terms of beef exports, supplies butter, powdered milk, baby food, fish and fish products, as well as whiskey (including under the Jameson brand), beer (Guinness ”, etc.), liqueurs (“Baileys”). In the field of food and beverage production, Irish firms predominate (about 3/4 of those employed in the industry), the largest of them are Glanbia, Fyffes, Greencore, Kerry, C&C; among foreign companies stand out the British "Diageo" (alcoholic beverages) and the American "Coca-Cola".

The building materials industry is based on Irish raw materials (limestone, gypsum, dolomites, granite, etc.) and mainly works for the domestic market. In 2001-05, production volumes increased by more than 1.5 times - up to 2.3 billion euros (over 2% of the value of sales of industrial products), 10.8 thousand people are employed in the industry (2005). The leading company is CRH (the second largest national company in the country). The woodworking and pulp and paper industry (sales value of about 1.9 billion euros, 10.3 thousand employees, 2005) is based on imported raw materials, but mainly serves the domestic market. At the beginning of the 21st century, the industry's production volumes are growing, mainly due to an increase in demand for wooden materials and structures for building needs. Production of standard roundwood 2542 thousand m 3 , sawn timber 939 thousand m 3 , chipboard 841 thousand m 3 (2004). Other industries - furniture (sales value of 646 million euros, 5.6 thousand employees, 2005), textile and clothing (604 million euros, about 5 thousand employees), leather and footwear (44 million euros, 0.4 thousand employees) - are characterized by small scale of production and are in a state of protracted decline.

Ireland ranks first in the EU in terms of the share of construction in the structure of GDP (about 20%, 2005), as well as in the structure of employment (about 13%). In 2000-06, the volume of construction work increased from 18 to 32 billion euros, the number of employees - from 165 thousand to 263 thousand people. About 2/3 of the volume of construction work falls on housing construction. On a per capita basis, Ireland is building 7.5 times more housing than the UK and 4 times more than the EU as a whole. The National Development Plan for 2006-13 provides for the construction of 100,000 housing units (60,000 free and 40,000 affordable).

Agriculture. The total volume of agricultural production is 4962 million euros (2005; at producer prices), the number of employed is 109.6 thousand people (270 thousand people in 1999). Ireland fully meets its needs in livestock products (meat, milk, eggs, etc.), as well as in a number of crop products (potatoes, barley, oats, root crops). Ireland is a major exporter of livestock products. Wheat is imported (about 1/2 of consumption), as well as fruits and vegetables. A significant role in the development of agricultural production is played by EU subsidies (1813 million euros in 2006; 1684 million euros in 2005); more than one-half of the total amount of subsidies is received by the more backward agricultural regions in the west and north of the country.

Agricultural land covers 4.3 million hectares (2005; about 62% of the country's area), of which meadows and pastures - 91%, cultivated land - 9% (one of the lowest rates in the world, along with Australia, New Zealand and Iceland) . Of the total area of ​​meadows and pastures, cultivated pastures account for 57%, under perennial grasses used for making silage - 26%, under hayfields - 4%, the rest of the land is uncultivated pastures. There are about 135 thousand agricultural farms in the country (2003), almost all of them are family. About 50% of farms specialize in beef cattle breeding, 19% - dairy cattle, 15% - cattle and sheep, 9% - sheep, 7% - crop production and mixed farming. The average size of a farm's land plot is 32 ha (EU-wide 19 ha). Modern agricultural machinery (average 1 tractor per 3 ha of arable land, 2003) and fertilizers are widely used.

The leading industry is animal husbandry (74% of the value of agricultural products, 2005), including meat and dairy cattle breeding (56%, of which meat products 29%, dairy products - 27%), pig breeding (6%), horse breeding (5%), sheep breeding (4%), poultry farming (3%). Livestock (thousand, 2005): cattle 6850 (including dairy cows 1082), pigs 1660, sheep 6218, horses about 72, poultry 12300. Production (thousand tons, 2005): whole cow's milk 5500, beef 590, pork 237, lamb 70.8, poultry meat 123.4 (including chicken meat 88.7, turkey meat 32.3). An important branch of animal husbandry is the breeding of beef cattle (mainly of the Friesian breed), mainly focused on the export of beef. Dairy cattle breeding is developing rapidly. Most of the cattle population (about 60% of the beef and 76% of the dairy herd) is concentrated in the south and east of the country; horses are also mainly bred here (for sports purposes and use as a draft force). The main area of ​​sheep breeding is the west of the country with its less fertile soils. Pig breeding and poultry farming are developing on an industrial basis, mainly near large cities (Dublin, Cork, etc.).

Crop production accounts for about 26% of the value of agricultural products (2005), including fodder crops - 14%, potatoes and fruits and vegetables - 4%, grain (food) crops - 3%, mushrooms - 2%, sugar beets - 1%, other crops (including turnips) - 2%. Grain crops occupy over 70% of the sown area (276 thousand hectares, 2005; of which barley - 60%, wheat - 34%, oats - 6%); sugar beet - 31 thousand hectares, potatoes - 12 thousand hectares, peas and beans - 3 thousand hectares, rapeseed - 3 thousand hectares, other crops - 61 thousand hectares. The main grain crop is barley, about 3/4 of which is fed to livestock, the rest is used for brewing. Collection (thousand tons, 2005): cereals 1934 (including barley 1025, wheat 798, oats 111), sugar beets 1395, potatoes 422, peas and beans 17, rapeseed 13, as well as fruits and vegetables 244, mushrooms (champignons) 62; the production of artificial turf is 436 thousand tons. The average grain yield is about 70 centners per hectare (in 2002-04). About 80% of the total grain harvest and most other crops come from the southern and eastern regions of the country. Potato growing is ubiquitous, with about 45% of seed potatoes grown in County Donegal in the northwest of Ireland. Plant products are mainly consumed domestically, about 80% of mushrooms are exported (mainly to the UK).

Services sector. Ireland's largest and one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy. The total cost of services is estimated at 70-80 billion euros (2006); In terms of exports of services (53.3 billion euros), Ireland ranks 10th in the world. In the service sector, there are: wholesale and retail trade (22.9% of employees, 2005), financial, business and professional services (22.3%), hotel business and catering (9.6%), as well as healthcare (16. 1%), education (10.6%), other services (18.5%), including transport, communications, administrative services. The share of foreign companies accounts for about 40% of the total cost of services and about 22% of those employed in this sector of the economy.

In the retail trade, there are British companies Tesco (food and industrial products, sales - 2.5 billion euros, 2005), Next (clothing), Argos (household appliances, etc.); the largest Irish firm - "Primark" (trade in clothes and footwear). Leading catering firms are American McDonalds, Starbucks, Burger King and Subway.

Institutions and businesses in the rapidly growing financial, business and professional services sector (including computer services) are largely concentrated in the Dublin area. It houses the head offices of the main national banks (Bank of Ireland, AIB, etc.), branches and branches of about 450 foreign, including international, banks (Citibank, Chase Manhattan, Bank of America, Deutsche Bank, ABN Amro, etc.) . About 700 consulting firms specialize in law, auditing, accounting, taxation, etc. Many institutions have offices in the International Financial Services Center complex (1987; total average annual turnover of over 1 trillion euros). Ireland is a major global exporter of financial, business and professional services (about 60% of all exports of services, including 35% - computer services), is also the main offshore zone in Europe (along with Luxembourg).

In terms of the volume of computer services (including consulting and services in the use of computer and telecommunications equipment, software development, database creation, etc.), Ireland ranks first in Europe. In this sector (not distinguished by Irish official statistics), according to various estimates, from 4 to 8% of GDP is created and from 8 to 13% of all employed in the country's economy is concentrated (2005). All the world's major information technology companies operate in Ireland, including American Microsoft, Oracle, Symantec, and others. A national information technology industry has developed, represented by relatively small firms, usually with a narrow business, telecommunications, information security, integration tools, learning via the Internet, etc.). Up to 80% of all computer services (by value) are provided to foreign customers (exported).

About 6% of GDP is created in the sector of recreational services and tourism (over 100 thousand employed, 2005). The total amount of income from tourism is over 5.4 billion euros, including from foreign tourism - 4.3 billion euros. In 2006, 7.4 million foreign tourists visited the country (7.0 million in 2005; over 50% from the UK). About 1/2 (49%) of all trips to Ireland are made for leisure, 30% - to visit friends and relatives, 14% - tourism for business purposes, 7% - for study, etc. (2005). The most rapidly developing business tourism associated with the expansion of activities in Ireland of foreign firms. The state provides significant assistance to the development of tourism (in 2007-13, 800 million euros are allocated from the state budget for direct support of tourism, as well as over 3.6 billion euros for the preservation of historical monuments, the development of culture, sports, etc.).

Transport. Ireland has one of the world's densest inland transport networks. Of the total volume of domestic cargo transportation (about 11.5 billion t-km in 2005), over 95% is accounted for by road, 3% by rail, 1% by pipeline transport, and 1% by sea cabotage. Of the total volume of domestic passenger traffic (35 billion passenger-kilometres), road transport accounts for 94%, rail transport - 6%. The transport sector is mainly under the control of the state. Railway and bus traffic - run by the state "Irish Transport Company", with subsidiaries (Railways Administration, Bus Communications Administration, etc.); there are state-owned companies that manage the country's seaports, airports, etc. Ireland's highways are administered by the National Roads Authority. About 60 million tons of foreign trade cargo is transported (2005), of which about 84% - by sea, 12% - by road (mainly export-import cargo going through the ports of Northern Ireland), 3% - by pipeline, 0.7% - by air , 0.3% - by rail. International passenger traffic - about 40 million people (2005); among passengers traveling outside the island of Ireland, about 31 million people use air transport, about 4 million people - sea; about 5 million passengers cross the border with Northern Ireland (including 4 million people use road transport, about 1 million people use rail transport).

The length of highways is 96.6 thousand km (2003; all roads are paved), expressways are about 250 km (2005). In terms of the density of the paved road network (1380 km per 1000 km 2), Ireland is second only to the Benelux countries and the UK in the EU. The road network is most developed in the east of the country (in the Dublin area). The main highways connect Dublin with major cities - Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Galway, Sligo and others, as well as with Belfast (Northern Ireland). An important role is played by the motorway running along the western coast of the country, from Galway to the south - to Limerick, Cork, Waterford (the so-called Atlantic Corridor). The provision of the population with cars is about 390 per 1000 people (2004).

The length of the railways is 3312 km (2005), of which 1947 km are broad gauge (1600 mm; 46 km electrified), 1365 km are narrow gauge (914 mm; used mainly for the transport of peat). Rail freight volumes are declining (303 million t-km in 2005; 516 million t-km in 2001). In 2005, 1.8 million tons of cargo was transported, of which metal ores - about 30% (by weight), beer - 22%, cement - 15%, sugar beet - 13%, other cargo - 20%.

Maritime transport provides the bulk of international freight and about 10% of international passenger traffic. In 2005, Irish ports handled 52.1 million tons of foreign trade cargo, including 30% dry bulk, 28% liquid, 23% ro-ro cargo (of which over 95% are heavy trailers). ), 15% - containers, 4% - general cargo. The largest seaports (over 80% of the total cargo turnover, 2004) are Dublin (17.9 million tons) and Shannon Foynes (a group of port complexes and terminals in the estuary of the Shannon River; 10.6 million tons). The vast majority of foreign trade cargo is transported by foreign ships. There are 23 merchant ships registered under the flag of Ireland (over 1000 gross tons each) with a total displacement of 103.6 thousand gross tons, or 145.0 thousand deadweight tons (2006); 21 Irish merchant ships sail under the flags of other countries (Netherlands, Cyprus, Bahamas, Panama, etc.). About 97% of international maritime passenger traffic is carried out by ferries, about 3% - by cruise ships; over 90% of all passenger traffic is in the UK.

Air transport carries out over 3/4 of all international passenger traffic. The country has 36 airports (2006), including 15 with paved runways. The largest airports are Dublin (over 21 million passengers in 2006, 14th in Western Europe), Shannon (3.7 million), Cork (over 3 million). The leading airlines are the state-owned Aer Lingus (about 10 million passengers a year), the private Ryanair (the largest in Europe offering tickets at especially low prices; 454 flights between 130 airports in 24 countries, 42.5 million passengers in 2006) .

The length of inland waterways is 753 km (2005; used only for recreational purposes). The length of the main gas pipelines is 1728 km (2006).

International trade. The volume of foreign trade turnover is 207.2 billion dollars (2006), including exports of 119.8 billion dollars, imports of 87.4 billion dollars. In the structure of commodity exports, an important place is occupied by electronic products (including computers) and medicines, as well as machinery and equipment, chemicals, livestock, livestock products, alcoholic beverages, etc. The main importers of goods from Ireland (2005) are EU countries , including the UK (17.4%), Belgium (15.2%), Germany (7.4%), France (6.4%), the Netherlands (4.8%), and the US (18, 7%). The most important Irish merchandise imports are electronic components, other engineering products, chemicals, oil and petroleum products, textiles, clothing and footwear. The main suppliers of goods to Ireland (2005): Great Britain (37.1%), USA (13.8%), Germany (9.2%), the Netherlands (4.5%).

Lit.: The economic development of Ireland in the twentieth century. L., 1988; The end of Irish history? Critical reflections on the Celtic Tiger. Manchester, 2003; Modern Ireland. Oxf., 2003.

V. M. Sokolsky.

Armed forces

The total number of the Armed Forces (AF) of Ireland is about 10.5 thousand people (2006). Consist of Ground Forces (SV), Air Force and Navy. Military annual budget $959 million (2005).

The Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces is the President of the country. The general leadership of the Armed Forces is carried out by the Minister of Defense (civilian), and direct control is carried out by the Chief of Defense Staff. The supreme body of military administration is the Defense Council, which includes the Minister of Defense, his two deputies, the heads of the main departments of the SV and personnel policy of the Ministry of Defense, and the chief of the defense staff.

SV (8.5 thousand people) are not an independent type of aircraft. They are directly supervised by the Chief of the Defense Staff. Organizationally, the SVs were consolidated into regular and territorial troops (reserve). The regular troops include 3 infantry brigades (each with 3 infantry battalions, an artillery regiment, a reconnaissance battalion and a sapper company), an armed forces training center, an anti-aircraft artillery regiment, a Ranger special-purpose company, and a tank battalion. The territorial troops consist of 6 artillery regiments, 18 infantry battalions, combat and logistic support units, as well as a training center for reserve troops. In peacetime, the units of the territorial troops are manned by 5%, their weapons and military equipment are stored at the logistics bases. The SV is armed with 14 light tanks, 75 armored combat vehicles, about 600 field artillery guns and mortars, 60 ATGM launchers, 30 MANPADS. The Air Force (860 people) has a squadron of patrol aircraft, 4 squadrons of auxiliary aircraft and a helicopter squadron. The Air Force is armed with 15 aircraft and 15 helicopters. Air Force Base - Baldonnel. The Navy (1.1 thousand people) includes a flotilla of surface ships, a naval college, and support units. The Navy is armed with 8 patrol ships, 2 aircraft and 2 helicopters. Naval Base - Cork.

The staffing of the Armed Forces is carried out on a voluntary basis. The minimum duration of the contract in the Army and Air Force is 3 years, in the Navy 4 years. The maximum term of military service is 31 years. Mobilization resources amount to 1 million people, including 828 thousand people fit for military service.

V. V. Gorbachev.

healthcare

In Ireland, there are 279 doctors, 1,520 nurses, 2,237 dentists, 3,898 pharmacists, 427 midwives per 100,000 inhabitants (2004); 572 hospital beds per 10,000 inhabitants (2005). Total health spending is 7.2% of GDP (2003) [budget funding - 79.5% (2004), private sector - 20% (2003)]. The legal regulation of the healthcare system is carried out on the basis of laws: on the Commission on Human Rights (2000), on healthcare (regulates issues of information support and quality management of medical care; 2007), on nursing homes (1990). The health care system includes the public and private sectors. Responsibility for the health care delivery system rests with the government. The voluntary health insurance system covers about 50% of the population. The incidence per 100 thousand inhabitants is: diseases of the circulatory system 218.2 cases, malignant neoplasms 180.9, injuries and poisonings 30.3, pulmonary tuberculosis 9.5 cases (2005).

The main causes of death in the adult population: cardiovascular diseases (39%), coronary heart disease (20%), cancer (27%) (2004). Resorts: seaside climatic - Bray, Tramore, balneological - Lisdunvarna, Lukan, etc.

V. S. Nechaev.

Sport

The Irish Olympic Committee was established and recognized by the IOC in 1922. The representative of Ireland, Lord M. Killanin, was President of the IOC from 1972-80.

Athletes from Ireland have participated in all the Olympic Games since 1924 (except 1936), competing in most of the sports that make up the Olympic program. In total, Irish athletes won 20 medals at the Olympics (8 gold, 6 silver, 6 bronze). Twice - in Amsterdam (1928) and Los Angeles (1932) - P. O'Kallegen won the Olympic championship in hammer throwing. Athletes R. Tisdell (1932) and R. Delaney (Melbourne, 1956), boxer M. Carruth (Barcelona, ​​1992) also became champions of the Olympic Games. The greatest success in the history of Irish sports was achieved by M. Smith, who won in Atlanta (1996) three gold medals (400 m freestyle, 200 m and 400 m medley) and one bronze (200 m butterfly).

The Ireland national football team participated in the World Cup three times (1990, 1994 and 2002), including reaching the 1/4 finals in 1990. Among the most famous football players: midfielder L. Brady, who played for the London Arsenal (1973-1980), Manchester United (1980), Juventus (1980-82), played 72 matches for the national team (scored 9 goals); goalkeeper P. Bonner played 642 matches for Celtic (Glasgow); midfielder R. Keane, who won the Champions League with Manchester United (1999); forward T. Cascarino, who played for Celtic, Chelsea (London).

The Irish rugby team (also includes players from Northern Ireland) is a participant in all 6 World Cups held (1987-2007; reached the 1/4 finals 4 times), a 10-time winner of the Six Nations Tournament.

The Irish chess team has been a participant in the World Chess Olympiads (since 1935).

Among the most popular sports in the country are: national - Gaelic football (combines the rules of rugby and football), hurling (an Irish form of field hockey), as well as athletics, football, golf, rugby, horse racing and dog racing, triathlon, water sports , baseball, basketball, cricket, cycling, tennis, badminton, squash, etc.

Famous athletes: athletes - E. Coglan, who became the world champion in 1983 in the 5000 m, and S. O'Sullivan - world champion (1995) and silver medalist of the Sydney Olympic Games (2000) in the 5000 m; cyclists - S. Roch, who in 1987 won the world championship in the road race, in the Tour de France and Giro d'Italia races, and S. Kelly, who won the Vuelta (1988); golfer - P. Harrington (winner of the British Open, 2007).

Among the well-known sports facilities in Europe: stadiums in Dublin - "Crock Park" (82.5 thousand seats) and "Lansdowne Road" (35 thousand seats for football matches and 50 thousand seats for rugby); hippodromes in Cork, Fairhouse, Limerick, etc. In Dundalk, in 2007, the construction of a unique all-weather hippodrome was completed, which allows horse racing and running at any time of the day.

Lit .: All about sports. Directory. M., 1976. Issue. 3. P. I. Andrianov.

S. O'Sullivan.

Education. Scientific and cultural institutions

The education system is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Science. Main regulatory documents: Regional Technical Colleges Act (1992), Universities Act (1997, amended 1998, 1999), Education Law (2000). Ireland does not have a state system of early childhood education. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 16. The education system in Ireland has three levels. The 1st level includes: a Montessori school for children from 2.5 to 6 years old (one of the forms of primary education and at the same time a kind of preparation for entering primary school) and the primary school itself for children from 4 to 12 years old.

2nd level - secondary education for children from 12 to 18 years old; includes a 3-year junior cycle, a transition year (optional), a 2-year senior cycle (the last year of study is devoted to university preparation). Most publicly recognized and funded elementary schools are run by the Catholic Primary Schools Managers' Association (CPSMA). Since the 1970s, at the request of parents, several multi-religious primary schools have been founded (in the early 2000s, over 25).

There are three types of secondary schools: voluntary secondary schools (owned by religious communities or non-profit organizations); vocational schools (community colleges) owned by local governments and run by vocational education committees; comprehensive (community) public schools run by boards or a trustee. There are also many heterogeneous schools, which can be roughly divided into two groups: national free general education schools (established since the early 1960s) and paid private general education institutions (covering about 4% of students), such as Castlenock College (1835), Blackrock College (1860), Rockwell College (1864), Mount Anville School (1865), St. 80 - boarding schools); Primary education covers 96%, secondary - 88%, vocational education - about 30% of children of the corresponding age.

In the system of higher education in Ireland - 7 public universities, technological institutes, pedagogical institutes, colleges of higher education, including Trinity College (Dublin University, 1592; the university library is one of the five largest libraries in the world), the Irish Royal Academy of Music (1848) , National University of Ireland [combines 4 universities - University College Dublin (founded in 1854 as the Catholic University of Ireland; modern name since 1908), National University at Maynooth (founded in 1795 as St. Patrick's College; modern status since 1997), Cork University (1845 ), National University Galway (1845)], University of Limerick (1972; current status since 1989), Dublin City University (1980; current status since 1989); technological (technical) institutes - in Cork, Dublin, Athlone, Carlow, Galway, Dundalk, Limerick and other cities; oldest colleges: Royal College of Physicians (1654), National College of Art and Design (1746; current status since 1971), Royal College of Surgeons (1784). Major libraries: Marsh Library (1701), National Library (1877), Public Library (1884), Catholic Central Library (1992), National Archives - all in Dublin; libraries of universities and colleges, etc. Main museums: National Gallery of Ireland (1864), National Museum of Ireland (1877), Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery of Modern Art (1908), Heraldic Museum (1909). Irish Museum of Modern Art (1991), Dublin Writers' Museum (1991) - all in Dublin; Public Museum in Cork (1910), Hunt Museum in Limerick (1974), etc.

Among the scientific institutions of Ireland are the Royal Irish Academy (1785), the Royal Ibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture (1823), the Royal Academy of Medicine (1882), Teagask (1988) - the national governing body, scientific research and education in the field of agriculture and food development (offices in Dublin, Cork, Galway); a number of scientific associations, societies, institutions, including the Dublin Royal Society (1731), the Institute for Economic and Social Development (1960; Dublin); Observatory (1785), National Botanical Garden (1795).

Lit.: Coolahan J. Irish education: its history and structure. Dublin 1981; Clancy R. Education policy in Ireland // Contemporary Irish social policy. 2nd ed. Dublin, 2005.

T. I. Kuznetsova.

Mass media

The first commercial newspaper was published in 1662, and in 1859 the first issue of the Irish Times was published. There are 12 national newspapers in Ireland, including 4 daily, 2 evening, 5 Sunday and 1 weekly, as well as over 60 regional newspapers with a total circulation of about 2 million copies. The sales leader is the Irish Independent (published since 1905; circulation of over 82 thousand copies, 2006), the most influential in Ireland are The Irish Times (117 thousand copies) and Irish Daily Star (Irish edition of the British British Daily Star ", since 1988). The first two are published by the largest Irish concern Independent News & Media. National daily newspapers are also the Irish Examiner (since 1841; over 57,000 copies), the Evening Herald (since 1891; over 87,000 copies) and the Evening Echo (since 1892; about 27,000 copies).

Broadcasting since 1926. In 2007 there were 115 radio stations in Ireland. TV broadcast from 12/31/1961. The largest television and radio company is the state-owned Radio Telefis Éireann (RTÉ), which has two nationwide radio networks and a number of regional radio stations, as well as three television channels, one of which is TG4 broadcasting in Irish. The only private independent TV channel is TV3 (since 1988). Ireland also receives signals from television and radio stations located in the UK and Northern Ireland.

Literature

The literature of the Irish people developed in Irish and English. The carriers of oral literature, known from later records, were the Druids and Philides. The epic tradition is represented by prosaic sagas (with poetic inserts), divided into cycles: mythological, including both stories about the gods and legendary legends from the history of the settlement of Ireland (“The Book of the Conquests of Ireland”, etc.); Uladsky, which describes the battles of kings and heroes (sagas about the hero Cuchulain, including “The Abduction of the Bull from Kualnge”, etc.); as well as the later Fenian cycle (the Ossian sagas). In the Middle Ages, monasteries became centers of religious literature - hymns, lives of saints, visions ("Vision of Adomnan", 11th century), chronicles, treatises on medicine, topography, genealogy, etc. were created there. The poetry of the bards, rich in metaphors, was characterized by complex syllabic metrics with the use of alliteration. In the 13th-15th centuries, religious and court poetry developed (D. More O'Daley, M. Albanah O'Daley, etc.), ballads and songs based on the plots of the Fenian cycle gained particular popularity. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, patriotic motifs and elegiac moods intensified in the poetry of Ireland (O. McWard, T. Dal O'Huigin, E. O'Hussey, etc.). A significant literary monument of the 17th century was the collection Poets' Discord, which reflected the dispute between two poetic groups of bards headed by T. McDair and L. O'Clery. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the metrical system of Irish versification underwent modernization, following the model of English poetry, a transition was made from the syllabic system to the tonic one; one of the last bards was T. O'Carolen. In the prose of the 17th-18th centuries, historical works compiled on the basis of ancient manuscripts dominated: the Annals of the Four Masters, created under the guidance of the monk M. O'Clery (1636), The History of Ireland by J. Keating (circa 1640), The Genealogical Book D. McFirbis (1666) and others. Writers and poets often referred to the description of the traditional way of life of the Irish (OR O'Sullivan, E. Raftery, and others).

By the beginning of the 19th century, the literature of Ireland, having retained its connection with Irish folklore and original traditions, had mainly switched to English. The goal of the Romantics was to awaken interest in the life of the common people, in folk oral literature and mythology: the novels of M. Edgeworth (“Castle Rakrent”, 1800, etc.), the work of T. Moore, the historical novels of J. Baynim, the “peasant” prose of W. .Carlton and others; The book Magical Legends and Tales of Southern Ireland by T. K. Crocker (1825) had a great European resonance. A romantic rethinking of Irish folklore is characteristic of the work of S. Ferguson, as well as J. Clarence Mangan, T. Davis and other writers and poets who collaborated with The Nation magazine and united in the Young Ireland organization. Realistic tendencies manifested themselves in the poetry of W. Ellingham, the novels of C. Leaver, and the plays of D. Busiko (The Blonde Girl, 1860; The Tramp, 1874, etc.).

The period of the rise of Irish literature in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was called the Irish Renaissance: the work of W. B. Yeats, J. Sing, I. A. Gregory and others won worldwide recognition; the prose of J. Joyce became one of the most striking examples of modernism in European literature and marked the beginning of stream of consciousness literature.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Irish professional theater developed, the plays of W. B. Yeats, J. Moore, E. Martin, J. Russell, I. A. Gregory, J. Sing and others were very famous. In 1920-60 In the 1990s, social poetry (P. Kavanagh, E. Milne, J. Montague, R. Murphy, and others) and the social novel (S. O'Casey, L. O'Flaherty, and others) developed. The theme of hopelessness and absurdity of being is at the center of S. Beckett's novels and plays. Motifs of exile and loneliness distinguish Irish drama in the 2nd half of the 20th century (Sh. O'Casey, B. Friel, and others). In the prose of the 2nd half of the 20th century, under the influence of existentialism, social problems give way to psychological analysis: the work of O'Connor, M. Lavin (the novel "Sweet Story", 1957; the collection of short stories "The Shrine", 1977), R. Power (the novel " Hungry Grass, 1969), E. O'Brien (the novels The Country Girls, 1960, I Barely Knew You, Johnny, 1977), J. Banville (the novel The Night Spawn, 1971; the story Birchwood, 1973), J. Plunkett, W. Mackin, W. Trevor, B. McLeverty (the story "Lam", 1980) and others. Comprehension of the national worldview of the Irish, their traditions, myths, the search for national identity, turning into reflection on the metaphysical foundations of being , distinguish the poetry of the last third of the 20th century (O. Clark, T. Kinsella, J. Montagu, S. Heath, S. Dean, etc.).

Publisher: Irish Sagas. M.; L., 1961; Modern Irish novel. M., 1975; Awakening. Stories of Irish writers. L., 1975; From Modern Irish Poetry. M., 1983; The abduction of the bull from Kualnge. M., 1985; Modern Irish tale. M., 1985; Poetry of Ireland. M., 1988; Traditions and myths of medieval Ireland. M., 1991.

Lit .: Sarukhanyan A.P. Modern Irish literature. M., 1973; Cahalan J. M. The Irish novel: a critical history. Dublin 1988; Mercier V. Modern Irish literature: sources and founders. Oxf., 1994; Irish Literature of the 20th Century: A View from Russia. M., 1997; Mahony S. N. Contemporary Irish literature: transforming tradition. Basingstoke, 1998; Matyushina I. G. The most ancient Irish lyrics // Matyushina I. G. The most ancient lyrics of Europe. M., 1999. Book. 1; Cyberd D. Irish classics. Camb., 2001; Vance N. Irish literature since 1800. Harlow, 2002.

A. R. Muradova.

Architecture and fine arts

On the territory of Ireland, monuments of the late Neolithic and the Bronze Age have been preserved - megalithic structures (cromlechs and dolmens), mounds with stone tombs, round, ramparted platforms (henjis); jewelry made of gold and bronze with geometric ornaments. From the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BC, the art of the Celts (Gaels), distinguished by a characteristic complex linear pattern, spread to Ireland from the mainland.

After the Christianization of Ireland in the 5th-12th centuries, monasteries with chapels and cells were built (in Inisglore, Glendalough, Kels, Killaloe, etc.), high (up to 34 m) watchtowers-bell towers (about 70 in total - in Ardmore, Glendalough, Kilmaduagh and etc.). The Celtic traditions of linear-spiral ornamentation, combined with zoomorphic motifs and braided animal style of the Germans, formed the basis of the Irish ornamentation of the early Middle Ages (the so-called Ibero-Saxon style).

Precious pins with ring-shaped pommel (including the "Tara fibula", 8th century), reliquaries (including the reliquary of St. Patrick's bell around 1100 - see illustration for Gala's article), bishop's croziers and other church utensils are ornamented in this style. Irish ornamentation influenced Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian art from the 7th to 12th centuries. The Irish miniature, combining Ibero-Saxon-style ornamentation with stylized images (symbols of the Evangelists; for example, the Gospel of Kells of the late 8th and early 9th century), influenced the book ornamentation of Anglo-Saxon England and Carolingian Europe. For the ornamentation of carved stone crosses of the 9th-12th centuries (up to 6 m high), plant motifs are more characteristic, as well as biblical scenes, possibly reflecting the influence of Mediterranean art.

Tuam. Cathedral. 1827-1937. Architect D. Madden.

The Anglo-Norman invasion and subsequent English colonization slowed down the development of the original culture of Ireland. In the 11th-12th centuries Romanesque chapels (in Cashel) and churches (in Kilmakedar, Roscrea, etc.) primitive in composition were erected. In the 2nd half of the 12th century, magnificently decorated, but simple in spatial composition, cathedrals arose in Clonmacnoise, Tuam, Clonfert, Killaloe (with portals decorated with elegant carvings). At the end of the 12th-14th centuries, the most important monuments of early Irish Gothic were created (Christ Church and St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin; the church in Kilkenny), most of them with one nave and a tower above the cross. Castles of the 13th-14th centuries (in Limerick and others) are close to English ones.

The ceremonial architecture of Dublin, which became the residence of the viceroy in the 17th-19th centuries, was created in the spirit of English classicism, mainly by English architects (W. Robinson, W. Chambers, T. Cooley, J. Gandon and others); Irish architect F. Johnston played a significant role. After the adoption of the Catholic Emancipation Bill in 1829, a stormy church building began, in which the English neo-Gothic style prevailed (cathedrals in Cork, Killarney, etc.). Irish artists of the 18th century worked mainly in England - portrait painters C. Gervase, N. Hone the Elder, H. D. Hamilton, landscape painters J. Barrett and J. Barry, R. Barker, the creator of the first panorama of Edinburgh. In 1823 the Royal Ibernian Academy of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture was founded in Dublin, one of the founders of which was the portrait painter W. Cuming. Since the 1840s, the struggle for national self-determination has stimulated the desire for national identity in the lyrical landscapes of N. Hone the Younger, urban views and genre scenes of W. Osborne. Among the Irish sculptors of the late 18th - 19th centuries are E. Smith and J. H. Foley (the author of several monuments in Dublin). At the beginning of the 20th century, under the influence of the Irish Renaissance and French symbolism, O. Sheppard created his sculptural works.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a national realistic school was formed (portraits by John B. Yeats, P. Tyuoi, J. Keating, C. Lamb, landscapes by J. H. Craig, P. Henry, G. McGinnis, D. Hill). The temperamental painting of Jack B. Yeats reflected the folk life of Ireland in many ways. The semi-abstract landscapes of N. Reid and P. Collins coexisted with the abstract art of P. Scott and S. King. R. Balla and M. Farrell worked in the field of pop art. In architecture, much attention was paid to housing construction: cottage settlements were mainly created, in cities - areas of low-rise buildings in the traditions of Irish architecture. Since the 1930s, a number of large buildings and complexes in a modern style have been built in Ireland (the work of architects M. Scott, R. Tollun, S. Stephenson), including educational ones (in Dublin - the library building of Trinity College, 1961-67, architect P. Koralek; campus of University College Dublin, built since 1964, architect A. Weichert), church, distinguished by original forms (St. Michael's Church in Dun Laar, 1973, architects S. Rothery, P. McKenzie, N. O 'Dowd; designs by architect W. McCormack, etc.), and business (International Financial Services Center in Dublin, 1990s); significant industrial and transport facilities were erected (Dublin Airport, 1937-1940, architect D. Fitzgerald; many bridges, etc.). Memorial sculpture continues to traditionally play an important role in the urban environment of Ireland - the deeply associative abstractions of the sculptor M. Warren, the expressionistic plasticity of R. Gillespie's compositions ("Hunger" in Dublin, 1997). Among the new structures is the so-called Dublin Spire (2003, Ian Ritchie Architects).

Lit.: Strickland W. A dictionary of Irish artists. Dublin; L., 1913. Vol. 1-2. Blackrock, 1989; Leask H. G. Irish churches and monastic buildings. Dundalk, 1955-1960. Vol. 1-3; idem. Irish castles and castellated houses. Dundalk, 1977; Henry F. Irish art in the early Christian period. L., 1965; idem. Irish art during the Viking invasions. L., 1967; idem. Irish art in the romanesque period, 1020-1170 A. D. L., 1973; Arnold V. A concise history of Irish art. L., ; Irish portraits, 1660-1860. (Cat.). , 1969; Stalley R. Architecture and sculpture in Ireland, 1150-1350. Dublin; L., 1971; Breffny B. de, Fflolliott R. The houses of Ireland. L., 1975; Breffny B. de, Mott G. The churches and abbeys of Ireland. L., 1976; Nordenfalk C. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon painting: book illumination in the British Isles. L., 1977; Harbison R., Potterton H., Sheehy J. Irish art and architecture. L., 1978; Barrow G. L. The Round towers of Ireland. Dublin 1979; Loeber R. A biographical dictionary of architects in Ireland, 1660-1720. L., 1981; Craig M. The architecture of Ireland: from the earliest times to 1880. L., 1982; Fitz-SimonChr. The arts in Ireland. Dublin 1982; Knowles R. Contemporary Irish art. Dublin 1982; Ivanova E.K. Modern architecture of Ireland. M., 1982; Shaffrey R., Shaffrey M. Buildings of Irish towns. Dublin 1983; Alexander J. Insular manuscripts: 6th the 9th century. L., 1984; The Irish impressionists: Irish artists in France and Belgium, 1850-1914. (Cat.). Dublin 1984; Hurley R., Cantwell W. Contemporary Irish church architecture. Dublin 1985; Bence-Jones M. A guide to Irish country houses. L., 1988; Kennedy S. B. Irish art and modernism, 1880-1950. Belfast, 1991; McConkey K. A free spirit: Irish art, 1860-1960. L., 1991; Fallon B. Irish art, 1830-1990. Belfast, 1994; Ireland: art into history / Ed. W. R. Kennedy, R. Gillespie. Dublin 1994; Dictionary of Irish artists: 20th century. Dublin, 1996.

Music

The first Irish scholar to write about music is John Scotus Eriugena: his philosophical work On the Division of Nature (860s) supposedly contains one of the first mentions of the organum in history. The Welsh historian and traveler Girald Cumbrian in his treatise "Irish Topography" ("Topographia hibernica", 1188) noted the virtuoso skill of Irish instrumentalists - performers on the "cithara" (that is, on the Celtic harp) and "tympanum" (that is, on the lyre - plucked, and from the 11th century on the bowed instrument; see also Mole), superior to Scottish and Welsh musicians. The keepers of the epic musical and poetic tradition were the filids, then the bards, who influenced the further development of Irish music. Among Irish professional musicians of the 16th century - R.D. O'Catain, K. O'Daly, at the beginning of the 18th century, the composer and harpist T. O'Carolan became famous, combining the national tradition with the influence of baroque music (more than 200 of his compositions have survived).

With the development of urban culture in Ireland, English and Scottish music spread more and more. Irish national traditions were largely lost, but at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century public interest in them arose: in 1792 a national music festival was held in Belfast, at the beginning of the 19th century harp societies were created in Dublin and Belfast (one of the last representatives of the tradition - A. O'Neill), English and Irish folklorists recorded and published ancient Irish music: 3 collections of Irish folk music were published (1797, 1809, 1840; edited by E. Banting - the founder of musical folklore in Ireland), 10 collections songs of T. Moore (1808-34). Among the Irish musicians of the late 18th and 19th centuries: composer and harpist D. Murphy; composer and singer, performer of parts in W. A. ​​Mozart's operas by W. Kelly; author of operas and singer M. Balfe. The most famous Irish musician of the 19th century is the pianist and composer, the creator of the nocturne genre J. Field (he lived in Russia for many years).

The first Irish opera was written in 1909 ("Ehne" by R. O'Dweyer). Irish folklore was used in their work by musicians who lived in Ireland: the English composer A. Bax (String Quartet No. 1, 1918; symphonic poems "Fand Garden", 1916, "November Forest", 1917, "Tintagel", 1919); Italian composer and pianist M. Esposito (operetta The Postal Bag, staged in 1902 in London; opera The Tinker and the Fairy, 1910). As part of the Irish Renaissance, J. F. Larchet (a student of Esposito, in 1907-34 musical director of the Abbey Theater; author of music for performances, including the plays of W. B. Yeats), H. Harty ("Irish Symphony" ). Among the composers of the 2nd half of the 20th century: J. Victory (opera Chatterton, 1967; the first Irish requiem called Ultima rerum, 1981); A. J. Potter (the first Irish teleopera "Patrick", 1962; the symphony "De profundis", 1968, is one of the most frequently performed orchestral works in Ireland); avant-garde artist J. Barry (opera Intelligence Park, 1988). In the 1960s, Sh. O'Riada (J. Reidy) became famous - one of the most interesting musicians in Ireland, a public figure, propagandist of Irish culture, founder and leader (1961-69) of the Ceoltôiri Cualann traditional music ensemble, author of music for films on a national theme and other works; European fame brought him music for the documentary "I - Ireland" ("Mise Éire", according to P. Pierce, 1959, directed by J. Morrison).

Operas are staged at the Gaiety Theater in Dublin (since 1941) and in traveling theaters: the Irish National Opera (1965) and the Opera House Company (1986). National Symphony Orchestra (1948, current name since 1989), Irish Chamber Orchestra (1963; since 1995 - at the University of Limerick). Royal Irish Academy of Music (Dublin, 1848). The most significant international music festivals are: choral (since 1954, Cork), organ (since 1981, Dublin), piano (since 1988, once every 3 years; Dublin), early music (since 1996, Galway). The Galway Arts Festival (since 1978) is one of the largest in Europe. International Piano Competition (1988, Dublin). At the initiative of the Gaelic League, annual competitions in national dance, music, and poetry (feshana) are held in the cities of Ireland.

Lit.: Klein A. Die Musik Ireland im 20. Jahrhundert. Hildesheim u. a., 1996; Weller R. Gerald of Wales's view of music // Welsh Music History. 1997 Vol. 2; White H. The keeper's Recital: music and cultural history in Ireland, 1770-1970. Cork, 1998.

Dance and ballet

Among the folk dances of Ireland, the local form of tap dance has gained worldwide popularity. In the 1990s, dance ensembles specializing in this type of dance began to be created (in 1995, in the production of J. McColgan, B. Whelan's performance "River Dane" was shown). These troupes perform with great success in many countries. The first school of classical ballet, founded by N. de Valois, worked in Dublin in 1927-34. Choreographer JD Moriarty founded the Cork Ballet School in 1945 and the Cork Ballet Company in 1947. In the 1960s, attempts were made to create a permanent ballet company in Ireland, but for financial reasons, the troupes did not exist for long. N. A. Nikolaeva-Legat and L. F. Myasin collaborated with one of them, the National Ballet (founded in 1961). In 1974, Moriarty founded the Irish Ballet Company in Cork (since 1983 the Irish National Ballet; existed until 1989), which performed regularly in Dublin. Among the productions of Moriarty: "The daring fellow, the pride of the West" by S. O'Riada (based on the play by J. M. Sing, 1978). In 1974-89 the troupe's artistic consultant was D. Reiter-Soffer, who staged The Lady of the Camellias to the music of C. Saint-Saens (1984). The repertoire also includes classical ballets by M. I. Petipa, A. Bournonville, A. Dolin, and others. In 1979, the troupe of the Dublin City Ballet was founded (artistic director - L. O'Sullivan), in 1997 A. Maher created her own ballet troupe in Dublin. Since 2002 Dublin has hosted the International Contemporary Dance Festival, and in 2006 the Dance House was opened.

E. Ya. Surits.

Theater

The theatrical art of Ireland developed under English influence. From the 16th century, mystery plays were staged in Dublin, and in the 17th century the first theaters for the English nobility appeared. The first national theater group in Ireland with a permanent cast and with a single artistic direction is the Irish Literary Theater (1899-1901). Its founders W. B. Yeats, A. Gregory, E. Martin and J. Moore saw the main task in creating a national dramaturgy. A significant event was the production of Yeats' play The Countess Kathleen (1899). In 1903, the playwrights - the founders of this theater, united with the amateur troupe of the brothers W. and F. Fey, distinguished by their high performing skills, formed the Irish National Theater in Dublin (since 1904 the Abbey Theater, or the Abbey Theater). Among the actors: M. Gonn, S. Allgood, M. O'Neill, A. Sinclair, B. Fitzgerald, F. J. McCormick. In 1925, the Abbey Theater received a new stage (Peacock Theater). The most famous production in his ballet and drama studio is Yeats' Battle with the Waves (1929), starring N. de Valois. The theater was glorified by performances based on plays by Irish authors: J. M. Singh's "The Daring Fellow - the Pride of the West" (1907), "Shadow of the Arrow" (1923), "Juno and the Peacock" (1924), "The Plow and the Star" (1926) O'Casey, "Honorary Citizens" (1973), "Dancing at the Meadow Festival" (1990) B. Friel.

In 1918, L. Robinson organized the Dublin Drama League, which was replaced in 1928 by the Gate Theater created by the actor-directors H. Edwards and M. McLiammore. Its repertoire, in contrast to the Abbey Theatre, relied mainly on foreign dramaturgy: L. Pirandello, A. Strindberg and others. A school of national directing was formed in this theater. Among the actors: S. Cusack, D. Fitzgerald, O. Welles. In the first half of the 20th century, the Ulster Theater in Belfast (1904), the E. Martin Theater in Dublin (1905), a professional theater in County Galway, where plays were performed in the Gaelic language (1928-31), etc. were also opened. Period 1940 -50s was marked by the flourishing of the poetic theater: the Lyric Theater of O. Clark in Dublin (1940), the Lyric Theater of M. O'Malley in Belfast (1951), etc. In the late 1970s - early 1980s, under the influence of the English theater in In Ireland, the fringe movement has been developed - alternative theaters that oppose traditional forms and commercialization, combine artistic experiments and socio-political issues, mastering non-traditional space (cafes, parks, attics, etc.): the Sharaban troupe in Belfast (1983) and others.

Theaters also operate in Ireland: Gaiety (1871), puppet theater (1972) - in Dublin; Royal Theater (1876) - in Waterford; "Druid" (1975), City Theater (1995) - in Galway; Art Theater (1975, since 2006 in a new building) - in Cork; youth theaters in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, etc. The Dublin Theater Festival is held annually.

Lit.: Ô'hAodha M. Theater in Ireland. Oxf., 1974; Tishunina N. V. The theater of W. B. Yeats and the problem of the development of Western European symbolism. SPb., 1994; Ryapolova V. A. Abbey Theater (1900-1930s). M., 2001.

P. M. Stepanova.

Movie

Film shows in Ireland have been held since 1896, mainly in music halls. The first cinema opened in Dublin in 1909. The struggle for independence became the central theme of Irish cinema, but the first significant Irish films were directed by English directors: A. Melbourne-Cooper (“Irish Wives and English Neighbors”, 1907) and R. Field (documentary “Transportation of the Flock to Galway”, 1908 ). Some films (for example, "Ireland, a Nation" by W. McNamara, 1914) were banned from showing in their homeland, but were widely shown abroad. The Irish Film Company was founded in 1916. The gain of independence led to cultural isolation and the crisis of the Irish film industry. The first sound film appeared here only in 1933 (the musical The Voice of Ireland by W. Haddick). In 1936, the Irish Film Society (since 1978 the Union of Irish Film Societies) was founded in Dublin, and at the turn of the 1930s and 40s, the Irish Film Institute. Competition from foreign cinema, censorship, and the lack of state support hampered the development of national film production. Its revival began in the 1950s, when foreign filmmakers (many of them Irish by origin) began to shoot major staged films in Ireland with a predominantly national theme (“The Quiet Man” by J. Ford, 1952, Venice International Film Festival award, etc. “ Oscar"; "Ulysses" by J. Strick based on the novel of the same name by J. Joyce, 1967; "Ryan's Daughter" by D. Lin, 1971).

Measures taken in the 1970s to stimulate film production (tax incentives, the creation of a special film fund in 1979, etc.) contributed to the influx of foreign capital and the inclusion of Irish filmmakers (producers, directors, actors, etc.) in the process of globalization of screen culture. At the same time, the struggle for independence from Great Britain (In the Name of the Father, 1993, Irish director J. Sheridan; Bloody Sunday, 2002, English director P. Greengrass, "Breakfast on Pluto", 2005, Irish director N. Jordan, "The Wind That Shakes the Heather", 2006, English director C. Loach). Since the 1980s, Irish directors have gradually gained worldwide recognition: P. O'Connor ("Cal", 1984; "Dancing in Lugnas", 1998), Sheridan ("My Left Foot", 1989; "Field", 1990; " In America, 2002; Get Rich or Die, 2005), Jordan (Angel, 1982; Mona Lisa, 1986; Cruel Game, 1992; Interview with the Vampire, 1994). Irish films are competitive in their home country as well. The film "Commitments" (1991), filmed in Ireland with Irish actors, but staged by the Englishman A. Parker, became the box office champion. Since 1956, a film festival has been held in the city of Cork. In 1985, the Dublin International Film Festival was organized (since 2003 it has been held regularly).

A scene from the movie Get Rich or Die. Directed by J. Sheridan. 2005.

Lit.: Contemporary Irish cinema: from the quiet man to dancing at Lughnasa / Ed. J. MacKillop. N.Y., 1999; Barton R. Irish national cinema. L., 2004; idem. Acting Irish in Hollywood: from Fitzgerald to Farrell. Dublin, 2006.

V. V. Minyaev, K. E. Razlogov.

The name of the country comes from the Irish Éire and is translated quite simply - as a state. Relatively small in area (70.2 thousand square kilometers), Ireland is located on the third largest island in Europe, which bears the same name. Almost one-fourth of the country's population, which is 1.4 million people, lives in the capital, the city of Dublin. The length of the island from east to west is about 300 kilometers, from north to south - 450 kilometers. In the east it is washed by the Irish Sea, in the west, north and south it borders on the Atlantic Ocean. The joint border with Great Britain is 360 kilometers. The highest geographical point of the island is Mount Carantuill, its height is 1041 meters.

Ireland is rightfully considered one of the best places to spend your vacation, which is different from a beach holiday in the resorts of the Mediterranean Sea. There are other points that attract travelers here: the presence of an extensive excursion program, due to the historical past of the country, the famous Irish beer, unforgettable nature rightfully attract many European tourists here.

For Russian travel enthusiasts, the road here is not so easy, although the recently opened direct flight Moscow - Dublin (only in the high season, in summer) undoubtedly corrects the situation. Ireland also attracts many students from different countries who come here to improve their English. Well, the magnificence of nature, which no advertising booklet is able to convey, attracts many photographers and artists to the country.

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However, both representatives of bohemia and lovers of hard rock will find something to entertain themselves here. Dublin theater troupes, as well as the famous conceptual rock parties, are just a few that Ireland has prepared for tourists. Well, the transcendent hospitality of the locals towards visitors has long been a legend - guests here do not experience any difficulties.

How to get to Ireland

Aircraft

Since Ireland is an island, you can get there either by air or by water. With airplanes, everything is quite simple - the main airport, and by and large the only one where you can fly from other countries - Dublin Airport. It is here that the planes of the national Irish airline Aer Lingus, as well as the largest low-cost airline Ryan Air in Europe, fly. Planes of these airlines fly from almost every major European city, in addition, there are flights from other airlines. The air ticket search form will help you to understand all the variety of flights, where you can see both the options and the cost, and immediately purchase a ticket in a few clicks. As for direct flights, they appear in the high season from Moscow, also year-round residents of St. Petersburg can fly from the Finnish Lappeenranta Airport, where the already mentioned low-cost carrier Ryan Air flies from Dublin.

Ferries to Ireland

Since Ireland, as already noted, is an island, ferry traffic is highly developed here.

Ferries from Dublin go to ports such as Holyhead (UK, near Liverpool) and Cherbourg (France). Tickets can be purchased on the websites of companies and. In total, up to 8 ferries per day run on the route, 2-3 hours on the way. In addition, from the port of Dun Laare (a few kilometers south of Dublin) there are 7 more flights per day of the Stena Line. You can also sail from Dublin to the Isle of Man by the company's ferries and there is also a Dublin-Liverpool ferry, the company serves the route.

Ferries from Rosslare go to Cherbourg (France, Stena Line and Irish Ferries), Roscow (France, Irish Ferries), Pembroke (UK, Irish Ferries) and Fishguard (UK, Stena Line).

Cities and regions

The Republic of Ireland is made up of four historic provinces, which in turn are divided into 26 counties. Counties are the main administrative-territorial units of the country, which arose during the period of Anglo-Norman domination after the 12th century. The modern borders were determined by an act of the Government in 1898.

In the north of the island, 9 counties unite Ulster, six of which are part of Northern Ireland and the rest are part of the Republic of Ireland.

In the east of the island is Leinster, which includes Dublin, Carlow, Kilkenny, Kildare, Louth, Layish, Meath, Longford, West Meath, Offaly, Wicklow and Wexford.

The province is located in the south of Ireland Munster. It consists of the counties of Clare, Kerry, Cork, Waterford, Limerick and Tipperary.

The main destinations on this route are Killarney, Kenmare, Sneem, Waterville, Caherseewin, Glenbay and Killorglin. The total mileage is about 170 kilometers.

Traveling through these places, you can see numerous historical monuments and beautiful natural places. Travelers will be able to see Ross Castle, erected in the 15th century, the building of Macross House (19th century), which later became a museum, reservoirs of Killarney and the park of the same name of national importance, the houses of Derrinan and O'Connell, Black Valley, the temple of St. Michael, erected in the Middle Ages, Skelling Islands, the ring of druids, the monastery of the Franciscan monks and many other interesting places and buildings.

You can travel this route by car. But there are other, more interesting ways, such as walking paths and bike paths along roads built many years ago.

This is a route that is in high demand among visitors to the Emerald Isle. In the summer, numerous bus tours are organized to these beautiful places.

The main points of interest in Ireland by category:

Attractions

Museums and galleries

Entertainment

Parks and recreation areas

Leisure

Movement around the country

Almost the entire transport system in Ireland can be called public property on both sides of the Irish border. The roads of the two parts of the country developed independently of each other, and the railway network was formed for the most part before Ireland was divided.

Irish Cuisine

You can change money at exchange offices, travel agencies, hotels, but a more favorable rate is usually in banks, working on weekdays from 10.00 to 16.00, on Thursdays from 10 am to 5 pm. At ATMs available in almost every branch of the bank, you can withdraw cash around the clock from plastic cards of international payment systems. Traveler's checks are also used, for cashing which you must have an appropriate plastic card. There is no limit on the number of checks.

Since almost all tourists visiting Ireland do not avoid Dublin, it makes sense to read our article about "Shopping in Dublin", where you will learn about the nuances of shopping in the Irish capital, read about

Economic and geographical position of Ireland

Ireland is a Western European state that occupies most of the island of the same name.

The Atlantic Ocean washes the territory from three sides. The northern border is with Northern Ireland, which is part of the UK, with which Ireland directly borders in the east.

The countries are separated from each other by the North Channel, St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. The length of its maritime borders is 1448 km, and land borders - 360 km.

The island itself, and therefore the country, is located on important air and sea routes between Europe and North America, which makes the country's geographical position advantageous for the development of the economy.

Communication with the European continent and the UK is supported by air and ferry services. All types of transport are developing within the country. Flights from Dublin are carried out to all major cities - Cork, Shannon, Kerry, Sligo, etc.

Rail links are established not only within the country, but also with Northern Ireland. Most of the settlements are covered by bus service.

Near the west coast there are many islands, which can be reached by regular ferry flights. Ireland carries out all communications with the countries of the world by air and sea transport.

Rapid economic growth began in the 1990s, inflation and the trade deficit fell sharply. Until the 1990s, agriculture was an important sector of the economy, then industry came to the fore, accounting for 38% of gross income and 80% of all exports.

The country is a member of European organizations and unions - WTO, EU, OSCE, UN, CE, etc.

The main factor in the sustainable growth of the Irish economy is its exports. The country exports machinery and equipment, food products, non-ferrous metal concentrates.

Foreign trade partners are:

• Germany,
• Great Britain,
• France.

Ireland produces more food than it can consume in its domestic market, so the food industry accounts for about 10% of total exports.

Imports mainly include raw materials and materials for machine building, textile industry products, and some food industry products.

Ireland's import partners are mainly its neighbors - Germany, France, Great Britain, and also the USA.

For eight centuries, Ireland was a British colony, and only in 1921 was the Anglo-Irish Treaty signed, which proposed the formation of an Irish Free State.

It was this official name that the country bore until 1937. It was part of the British Commonwealth from 1922 to 1949.

As the Republic of Ireland, the country began to be called from 1949 and the connection with the British Commonwealth was terminated.

Remark 1

Thus, the economic and geographical position of Ireland is favorable, the country managed to defend its independence and, using its advantageous geographical position, but not having a wide variety of mineral resources, became one of the industrial and agricultural countries of Western Europe.

Natural conditions of Ireland

The relief of Ireland was influenced by the Caledonian and Hercynian folding, volcanic eruptions and Quaternary glaciation.

Occupying the outer part of the shelf throughout geological history, Ireland has repeatedly been subjected to transgressions and regressions from the sea.

The central plain, composed of red sandstones and limestones, occupies the inner part of the island and was formed during one of the Paleozoic transgressions. It rises above the sea by only 60 m. Within its limits there are separate hills rising by 180-300 m.

The outskirts of the plain are higher, represented by an island plateau, the height of which reaches 600 m. Low mountains rise along the edges of the island - these include the massifs of the western outskirts of Connemara, with a height of 819 m, Mayo - 807 m. The Donegal massif in the northwest, its height 676 m and two massifs in the east of the island - Morne, with a height of 852 m and Wicklow - 926 m above sea level.

The last two massifs belong to the Caledonian folding and form sharply defined peaks. The mountains located on the southern outskirts of the island belong to the Hercynian folding, so in the southwest are the Kerry Mountains, where the highest point of the country is located - Mount Carrantwill, whose height is 1041 m.

The northeastern part is occupied by the Ant Rim plateau and lowlands. Glaciation in the highlands left its traces in the form of circuses, deepened valleys, and in lowlands - drumlins, wagons, runoff hollows, moraines.

Ireland lies within the maritime temperate climate, which is characterized by unstable cyclonic weather, with frequent rains, fogs, and winds.

Thanks to the Gulf Stream, the winter in Ireland is mild, with an average January temperature of +5, +8 degrees. The temperature of a cloudy and cool summer is kept at around +14, +16 degrees.

The average amount of precipitation per year in the east is 700-800 mm, in the west their amount increases to 1000-1500 mm, and in the mountains more than 2000 mm falls annually. Most of the precipitation occurs in winter.

Natural resources of Ireland

Ireland does not have a wide variety of mineral resources, but those that are found in its bowels are quite significant.

The richest deposits of copper were discovered in Avoca, and deposits of barite in Badlino. In the production of non-ferrous metal ores back in the 70s, the country became a leader among European states.

Zinc reserves are 9 million tons, lead - 1.7 million tons. There are silver and proven gold reserves.

Coal reserves are 29 thousand tons, natural gas - 20 billion cubic meters. m.

For the construction industry, sand, gravel, and stone are mined. Peat is of great importance in the country, the extraction of which is at the level of 5 million tons per year. Peat briquetting plants process it for energy needs.

As a result of high humidity, not only a dense river network was formed in the country, but also an abundance of lakes and swamps. The rivers that do not freeze during the year are used to generate electricity and for navigation.

The most significant river of the island is the Shannon, which crosses Ireland from east to west. The length of the river is 386 km.

Tectonic, glacial, karst lakes formed on the Central Plain. The largest lakes are Loch Corrib, Loch Mask, Loch Ree.

The country's soils are infertile. Where there are limestone outcrops on the surface, barren limestone heaths and heaths spread. Podzolic soils formed in the dry regions of the Central Plain. Swampy peatlands become fertile after drainage. High air humidity contributes to the development of acidic soils, they are characterized by a deficiency of phosphorus. To increase the fertility of the soil, lime is applied and phosphate fertilizers are applied.

The climatic and soil conditions of Ireland are unfavorable for the growth of trees, so treelessness is a characteristic feature of the country's landscapes. Small, forested lands occupy only 1% of the area, but grasses grow well everywhere and provide a fodder base for livestock. Available meadows are used for grazing.

The Republic of Ireland occupies most of the island of Ireland with its year-round verdant meadows, picturesque mountains and lakes.

Square: 70,285 km2

Population: 3 917 000

Capital: Dublin (1,009,000 people)

Main export items: engineering products, transport equipment, chemical products, food (especially dairy products and meat), light industry goods

State. build: republic

Ireland is located on the westernmost edge of Eurasia. Like Great Britain, it was once part of this continent. Great Britain and Ireland became islands only about 11,000 years ago as a result of melting glaciers and rising sea levels. Ireland consists of a vast central plain, almost entirely surrounded by mountains on the coast. The plain is predominantly low-lying, on average no higher than 90 m above sea level. In many places it is dissected by ridges of low hills, lakes and rivers. The country's main river, the Shannon, originates in the north and forms a long estuary south of Limerick. This wide and slow river, reaching a length of 372 km, is the longest in the British Isles.

EMERALD ISLAND

The climate of Ireland is softened by the warm waters of the North Atlantic Current, thanks to which the winters on the island are not as cold as in other places at the same latitude. The average daily temperature in winter ranges from 4.5 to 7°C, which is 14°C higher than in other regions at the same latitude. Summer, on the contrary, is cool here - the average temperature does not exceed 15-17°C. Warm ocean currents and winds from the Atlantic provide abundant rainfall. On average, two out of three days of the year it rains on the island. The annual rainfall in the mountains in the southwest can reach 2500 mm. Due to the high humidity, most of the country is covered with dense grasses, mosses and meadow flowers all year round, for which it received its poetic name - the Emerald Island. About 10% of the territory is occupied by peat bogs, where rare wild plants are found, but as peat continues to be used as fuel and fertilizer, the bogs are threatened with extinction. The country is home to over 120 native bird species as well as various small mammals including stoats, mice, hares and foxes.

TRADITIONAL LIFESTYLE

Ireland has been inhabited for at least 9,000 years. About 2400 years ago, the Celts moved here from the continent. Since that time, Ireland has been isolated from the rest of Europe for a long time, for example, it has never been part of the Roman Empire. Thanks to this, the Irish managed to create a rich original culture and their own language. At the end of the XII century. began the conquest of Ireland by the British. Throughout the centuries of English colonization, the Irish fought for sovereignty. During the liberation war of 1919-1921. Ireland achieved the status of a dominion from Great Britain, and in 1949 it was proclaimed an independent republic. However, Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. During the long period of British domination, English became the most common language, and although Irish is taught in schools, it remains the language of everyday communication only for the inhabitants of the countryside, and even here the number of native speakers is constantly decreasing. Other elements of Irish culture continue to flourish in Celtic art, literature and various forms of music. The traditional musical instruments of the Irish are the harp and the bagpipe.

CHANGES IN THE ECONOMY

For a long time the Irish economy was based on traditional agricultural methods. Sugar beets, potatoes and cereals were grown here. Hundreds of thousands of pigs were bred, sheep were grazed on the mountain slopes, and cattle were bred in the center and south of the country. Agriculture remains an important industry, but the Irish economy is undergoing dramatic changes. With financial assistance from the European Union, of which Ireland is a member, agriculture has been modernized and now employs less than 7% of the Irish workforce. Many more Irish people work in new industries such as electronics and computers, as well as in the food and clothing industries. The tourism industry is developing. Beautiful landscapes, ancient history and unique culture of Ireland attract foreign visitors here. In 2000, more than 6.7 million tourists visited the country.