Cuba capital head of state state language. Cuba: a country of freedom, cheerful people and sunny resorts

Free economic zones were created. In 1997, there were already three FEZs operating in the country (Mariel, Wahai and the city of Havana).

Cuba exports, bringing income to the budget of its country, tobacco, seafood, sugar, nickel, medical products, coffee, citrus fruits.

Cuba's export partners are China, Canada, Spain, and the Netherlands. China has invested $500 million in the Cuban nickel industry, Brazil - the same amount in the development of Cuban hydrocarbon deposits, in the construction of a plant for the production of technical oils. A large nickel ore mining plant has been built in the province of Holguin.

The country imports today food, oil products, industrial equipment, chemical products. Its import business partners are Venezuela, China, Spain. Particularly tight and productive ties in terms of the Petrocaribe oil program with Venezuela. The trade turnover between the states annually reaches about 10 billion dollars.

Since 1962, the country has introduced a card system for the distribution of products. The "black market" thrives, as card products are issued irregularly here.

Cuba has a developed system of free public services: medical care, higher, secondary education.

Since October 2010, the list of business activities permitted by the government has increased in the country. In 2016, private small and medium-sized businesses were legalized.

Cuban branches of government

Cuba is a socialist republic of a parliamentary type. Most of the deputies in parliament still represent the Communist Party of Cuba.

The head of state is the Chairman of the State Council (he is also the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Cuba), which exercises executive power in the country. The chairman of the Council of Ministers, who is also the second secretary of the Central Committee, helps him.

The government of the Cuban state consists of two branches: the Council of Ministers and the Council of State. The ministry has 31 ministers.

The highest authority on Liberty Island is the National Assembly of People's Power, i.e. parliament of the republic. It includes 609 deputies who are elected for 5 years. She was entrusted with the formation of the government, the appointment of the head of the state council. The duties of the Assembly also include the election of the People's Supreme Court. The provincial courts are elected by the provincial assemblies of people's power, and the municipal courts by the municipal assemblies.

The Republic of Cuba is divided administratively into 16 provinces, which are respectively divided into 169 municipalities. Only one municipality, Huventud, is accountable to the central authorities, the rest are subordinate to local administrative structures.

Cuba's participation in international organizations

In recent years, having changed course in the political sphere, being squeezed by economic sanctions, Cuba has become more active in influential international organizations.

The Republic is a member of the World Trade Organization, takes an active part in international agreements: the Paris Convention, the New York Convention on International Arbitration, the Madrid Protocol. Cuba is a member of the International Organization of ACP States. For decades, Cuba has been participating in social programs at the international level.

57 Cuban specialists work in 101 countries, of which 70% are health workers. One of the Cuban programs "Operation Miracle" provides affordable medical care in 16 countries to poor, seriously ill people. In 28 countries of Latin America, the "Yes, I can" program is operating, aimed at combating illiteracy.

Whatever direction Cuba goes, the beauty of its natural landscape, the originality of culture and the attractiveness of the Cuban mentality will remain unchanged.

Liberty Island Cuba is a legendary country, about which, for all its color, we know not so much. Meanwhile, this island is rich in its history, culture and incredible life experience. Time stopped in Cuba about three decades ago. And you still have the opportunity to see the world of the past.

What is it, Cuba on the map

In the north of the Caribbean Sea there is a very interesting, original and uniquely memorable country, the Republic of Cuba. It covers not only the central island, but also several smaller ones. It is divided into 16 provinces, also includes the municipality of the Youventud Islands. No matter how large the area of ​​​​Cuba may seem, its population is about 11,300,000 people.

The state is a member of the United Nations and the World Trade Organization. The dominant Communist Party directs politics. The flag of Cuba is white, blue and red. The three blue stripes represent the Spanish parts of Cuba, the two white stripes represent independence, the red triangle represents equality, and the star represents freedom.

Cuba covers a total area of ​​110,860 square kilometers and is 1,250 kilometers long. The state borders on the United States, Mexico, Jamaica and the island of Haiti. The climate here is tropical, the temperature ranges from 22 to 30 degrees Celsius.

Where the name of the Island of Freedom came from is not fully known. It is assumed that the word "Cuba" came from the Taino Indians, who called the island a "beautiful place." And some historians say that the island of Cuba was named by Columbus in honor of the village of the same name in Portugal.

History of Cuba

Cuba has gone through a difficult path in the period of its formation. These lands have seen many revolutionary actions. The first civil uprising took place as early as 1823, when the locals decided to fight for an independent Spain. From 1868 to 1878, battles were fought here during the Ten Years' War for the independence of the Cuban people. This was followed by a number of revolutionary leaders, bringing to Cuba their orders and principles of government.

The well-known Fidel Castro came here in 1953. It was with his activities that the Cuban Revolution began, which opposed the ruling dictator Batista. When he fled the island, the "left" revolutionaries took the lead. But the optimistic trend did not last long, as repression soon began in Cuba. Castro was afraid of the dangerous influence of the United States, and actively began to cooperate with the Soviet Union.

It was this, the largest state at that time, that supported Cuba materially and financially. But when Perestroika began in the Union, the relationship changed. And Cuba itself has lost its former power. There was little money, there were not enough jobs. Stability was achieved only by 1994.

The church in Cuba operates according to its own rules, because everyone here has the right to their own religion. Mostly they profess Catholicism. But sometimes there are examples of Protestantism and African cult, which are built on the sacrifice and worship of various pagan gods.

They speak mainly in Spanish, but you can also hear English and Italian. In some regions, Dutch, German and various local dialects are spoken.

Cuba and its cities

The capital of Cuba, the city of Havana, is a tourist center and one of the largest in the country. Its total area is almost 727 square kilometers, on which 15 municipalities are located. Havana received the status of the capital in 1902, and at the moment it is the cultural, economic and political center of the country.

A lot of museums have been built in the city, in particular the Colonial, the National, the José Marti House Museum and the Museum of the Revolution. Also here you can see many old restored houses of the XVI-XVIII centuries. Also opened is the house-museum of the great writer Ernesto Hemingway, who was utterly in love with Cuba.

The second largest city in Cuba is Santiago de Cuba. It was built and inhabited at the beginning of the 16th century, and until 1556 it served as the capital of the state. Here, as in the capital, a lot of museums have been opened: ethnographic, municipal, natural history and others.

Tourists come to the south of Cuba to try their hand at recreational diving and see the fortress of San Pedro de la Roca del Morro. By the way, it is in this city that the grave of dictator Fidel Castro is located.

In the center of Cuba in 1514 the city of Camagüey was built. Local residents suffered from pirate attacks for several decades, but over time the area has changed. Surrounded by picturesque nature, the city is famous for its numerous attractions - the Ignacio Argamonte Museum, Trabajadores and Soledad squares, and, of course, Campestre Casino Park.

How to organize an unforgettable vacation in Cuba

Despite the fact that Cuba is not the richest country, there will definitely be something for a tourist to see here.

The bell tower rises in the capital Cathedral St. Christoph, the building is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was built from 1767 until the end of the 19th century, the frescoes of Giuseppe Perovani became the crowning achievement of architectural creation. The bells are made of bronze with an admixture of silver and gold.

Be sure to walk along the Prado Boulevard in the capital, this promenade separates the two regions of Havana. Noisy and colorful Cuban weddings take place here, since the Wedding Palace is located on the boulevard. built for tourists large hotel"Seville", and nearby rises the old Capitol. Walking along the boulevard in the evening, you will certainly see the Bolshoi Theater and Central Park. Walk a little more - and you are on the Malecon.

The picturesque and one of the largest parks, Sierra del Rosario, can be seen if you get to the Rosario ridge. big park is a protected area with a length of 250 kilometers. This land is home to a rainforest with more than 800 plant species. At the moment, the park is of particular natural value for UNESCO.

And, of course, you can't come to Cuba and not look into Hemingway's house. It was here that the writer lived almost until the end of his life. He was inspired by the unique seascape and fresh brackish air. Hemingway arrived in Cuba in 1940, but the house in which he settled was built at the end of the 19th century. Gorgeous views, rum and national flavor inspired the author to write the legendary novel The Old Man and the Sea.

In 1961, the writer passed away, and a year later, in tribute to his work, the Cuban authorities made a museum in his house. Everything here is preserved in the form that Ernest used to see. Even in the bedroom, on the desktop, they installed an exact copy of the typewriter on which brilliant works were created.

Cuba is something unique

You will definitely not find such another country anywhere in the world. And there are plenty of quirks on Liberty Island. Accustomed to bans, repressions and restrictions, Cubans have some other permissiveness. Surprisingly, the activities of Masonic lodges are still legal here. To this day, there is an organization of Masons, including a little less than 300,000 local residents.

But there are more restrictions. For example, one of the strangest rules is the ban on catching and eating lobsters by locals. This product is considered exclusively for tourism and is grown or caught by state monopolists. Local residents do not have the right to this product. We are talking not only about lobsters, but also about lobsters. To tell the truth, this rule, of course, is violated. But it still remains within the law and implies imprisonment for several years.

Photography in Cuba is a separate art form. But before you take the coveted picture, make sure it's legal. It is strictly forbidden to photograph administrative and military buildings, cars and any other places. There are a lot of KGB officers in all cities, but it’s better not to risk taking photos or videos with them. If you are photographing locals or taking selfies with them, then, first of all, ask permission. You are unlikely to hear a refusal, but if this happens, it is better to immediately erase the photo.

And the most popular entertainment in Havana is the Tropicana show. It is presented by a traditional cabaret with bright Cuban costumes. Ticket price - 95 Cuban pesos, this amount includes a pass to the event, a glass of champagne, a can of Coca-Cola and a bottle of rum. Cabaret tells the rich history of Cuba from the time of the Indians to the dictators of Castro.

Cuba and tourism

What does a tourist do when he gets tired of the sights or when there is a little less than a couple of hours left before the plane? Of course, go shopping!

The Caribbean coast is rich in its ocean sights and beauties. In local souvenir shops you can buy bracelets and figurines made of tortoise shell. It will be interesting for musicians to bring bongos, for fashionistas - a guayabera shirt. Well, where without traditional portraits of Che Guevara, who look at tourists from T-shirts, cups, key rings and other things.

You are unlikely to have to buy products, but you will not be able to do this very well either. In Cuba, everything is issued on coupons, and supermarkets work for tourists. To tell the truth, big shopping centers there are only two in Cuba, and then in the capital.

What to try in Cuba?

Of course, drink a glass of rum and, if tastes permit, smoke a fragrant cigar and feel like Al Capone. Buying Rum in any city in Cuba is easier than finding a store without a queue. Rum prices are minimal, but the quality matches the price. If you want to try a good cigar, then check out the Cigar Museum. This way you will learn more about this iconic item and buy a quality product for a relatively small price.

When it comes to restaurants, things are not going well. There are no large five-star restaurants with arches and waiters in butterflies in Cuba. And even small cafes for three tables with a thatched roof are called a restaurant here. But they cook in all establishments quite tasty. Widespread sea ​​food. The same lobsters and lobsters that are relatively inexpensive here.

All about Cuba for tourists

To visit Cuba you will need. The Embassy of the Island of Freedom warmly welcomes Ukrainian tourists, so the documents will be processed quickly. With such a visa, you can stay in the country for up to 30 days, and if the atmosphere of the island drags on for some more time, then the documents can be easily extended at the Ukrainian embassy.

Will cost you about 500-700 dollars. to Cuba ranges from 25 to 50 thousand hryvnia. The hotel will cost in a tourist city about 1500 - 2600 hryvnia per day. In smaller towns, hotels cost about
1000 - 1500 hryvnia per day. You can give yourself a truly heavenly pleasure and rent a house, villa or cottage on the coast. This luxury will cost 800 - 2200 hryvnia per day.

Regarding the currency, it is worth knowing one fact. There are two types of pesos in Cuba. The first is designated as CUP, this currency is less colorfully printed and is intended for local residents. For tourists, the peso is designated, which is designated as CUC. This is the so-called convertible peso, which corresponds to the usual one as 1:25, respectively. Interestingly, in any city in Cuba, both currencies are accepted. And the magic still exists.

Video - 13 interesting facts about Cuba

On the account of money, it is also important to know that there are no terminals in the local stores. So you should always carry cash with you. It is better to immediately withdraw a large amount from ATMs, because the commissions there are literally extortionate. Part of the amount should be kept close to you, and part should be left in the safe of the hotel or villa. And in general, all valuable things should be kept with you. Cuba has a fairly high rate of theft.

When taking photos, do not forget that posting pictures on Instagram will not be very easy. There is no Internet in Cuba on a large scale. You can use it only with the help of a map in certain places. Or in the central districts of the city at the main post office. Or in a hotel, of course.

In Cuba, it is a separate world that cannot be compared with anything. Temperamental, emotional and to this day not discouraged Cubans will gladly share their experience with you from the old memory. Ukrainians are habitual guests in Cuba. Once upon a time, a tour to Cuba was organized for the children of Chernobyl. Now everything is getting better, and Cuba is still waiting for our countrymen. The point is small - to clarify where Cuba is located, order a visa, book a hotel and fly to a meeting for a sunny vacation.

The name of the country comes from "akoba", which in the language of local Indians means "land, land".

Cuba Square. 110860 km2.

Cuban population. 11.39 million people (

Cuba GDP. $77.15 billion (

Location of Cuba. Cuba is a state located on the very large island West and several nearby islands. In the north it is washed by the Strait of Florida, in the southwest - by the Yucatan Strait, in the east - by the Windward Strait, in the south -.

Administrative division Cuba. The state is divided into 14 provinces and the special municipality of Isle of Youth.

Form of government of Cuba. Republic.

Head of State of Cuba. Chairman of the State Council.

Supreme Legislature of Cuba. The National Assembly, which elects the Council of State.

Supreme executive body of Cuba. Council of Ministers.

Major cities in Cuba. Santiago de Cuba, Camaguey, Holguin, Guantanamo, Santa Clara, Cienfuegos, Matanzas.

State language of Cuba. Spanish.

Religion in Cuba. 55% - atheists, 40% -, 3% - Protestants.

Ethnic composition of Cuba. 65% - descendants of Europeans, 20% - mulattoes, 12% - Africans, 1% - Chinese.

Fauna of Cuba. Of the mammalian representatives of the animal world, the hutia and the sand tooth should be distinguished. there is a huge number of bats, almost 300 species of birds, including the vulture, quail, finches, macaws, hummingbirds. More than 700 species of fish and shellfish live in coastal waters. Insects are numerous, among which are very dangerous - sand flea and malarial mosquito.

Rivers and lakes of Cuba. The largest is Cauto.

Sights of Cuba. In Havana - National Museum, Colonial Museum, Museum of Anthropology, Moro Castle, Santa Clara Monastery, La Fuerza Fortress, Cathedral Immaculate Conception, City Hall, America's largest zoo; in Santiago de Cuba - Museum of Natural History; In Cardenas, the Oscar M. de Rojas Museum; in Camagüey - a large number of churches and mansions of the colonial period. On the shore of the bay is the world's largest aquarium.

Useful information for tourists

As souvenirs from Cuba, you can bring black coral and jewelry from it, products from tortoise shell (especially bracelets and hairpins). Don't forget to buy one or two bottles of unique Cuban rum and real Cuban cigars. When buying products made of crocodile skin, ask the seller for an export license, otherwise this souvenir will be confiscated during the passage customs control. A good gift from Cuba would also be a tumbadora or bongos - percussion musical instruments. Another gift is the guayabera, a shirt worn by officials in the tropics. You will probably have to use the foreign exchange shops, as pesos can only buy books and medicines.

In Cuba, it is customary to pay a tip in the amount of 5-15% of the cost of services. The porter, the maid at the hotel are given 1 dollar.

Cuba(Spanish Cuba), the official name is the Republic of Cuba (Spanish República de Cuba), unofficial since 1959 - Freedom Island) - Island state in the northern Caribbean. The country occupies the territory of the island of Cuba as part of the Greater Antilles, Isle of Youth and many smaller islands. From North America Cuba is separated by the Strait of Florida to the north and the Yucatan Strait to the west.

The capital and largest city is Havana.

Geographical position

Cuba is located at the junction of North, Central and South America, on the island of Cuba (the largest in the West Indies), the island of Youth, as well as on the adjoining about 1600 small islands and coral reefs belonging to the Greater Antilles group. The coast is characterized by deep bays and many convenient bays. The island is framed by reefs and other coral formations.

The territory of Cuba is 111 thousand km². The island, stretching from west to east for 1250 km, is often compared to a lizard, whose body is facing the Atlantic, and the tail is located at the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico. In the south, Cuba is washed by the waters of the Caribbean Sea, in the northwest by the Gulf of Mexico, and in the northeast by the Atlantic Ocean. The distance from Cuba to the United States at the narrowest point of the Florida Strait is 180 km, to the island of Haiti through the Windward Strait - 77 km, to the island of Jamaica through the Strait of Colon - 140 km, to Mexico through the Yucatan Strait - 210 km.

Relief

The relief of Cuba is predominantly flat. Hills and mountains occupy about a third of the territory. Highest mountain range Sierra Maestra stretches along the southeast coast for 250 km. Its highest point is Turkino Peak (1972 m). The picturesque low mountains located in the west of the island are intricately dissected and poorly populated.

In Cuba, karst is developed everywhere, in connection with this, many caves are known, including large ones. So, in the west, the cave of Santo Tomas has an extensive network of underground galleries with a total length of 25 km. Often there are so-called "mogotes" - forms of tropical karst, which are hills with almost vertical slopes and flat tops. Approximately 2/3 of the entire area of ​​Cuba is occupied by slightly hilly plains. They are the most populated and developed. The shores are usually low, sometimes swampy, in many cases overgrown with mangroves. Often found sandy beaches, which stretch for many kilometers (for example, on the Hicacos Peninsula, where the famous resort of Varadero is located).

Minerals

Cuba occupies one of the leading places in the world in nickel mining (2nd place in the world in terms of reserves and 3rd in production), has significant reserves of chromium, manganese, iron and copper ores, asbestos, rock salt, and phosphorites. Oil and gas fields have been discovered in the west of the country.

Climate

The climate of Cuba is tropical, trade winds. The average annual temperature is 25.5 °C. The average temperature of the coldest month (January) is 22.5°C and the hottest (August) 27.8°C. The temperature of surface waters off the coast in winter is 22-24 °C, in summer - 28-30 °C. The average annual amount of precipitation, which usually falls in the form of showers, is 1400 mm, but dry years also occur frequently.

There are two distinct climatic seasons in Cuba: rainy (May-October) and dry (November-April). The rainy season accounts for 3/4 of the total annual precipitation.

A feature of Cuba's climate is typical high humidity throughout the year. The combination of high humidity and high temperature has a generally unfavorable effect on people's lives. However, on the coast, the wind from the sea moderates the heat, brings freshness, and in the evenings, coolness. In any place, the winds are distinguished by a certain constancy, so you can often see trees whose trunks also have a corresponding slope.

Cuba is subject to the action of tropical cyclones, which originate in the summer-autumn period (June - mid-November) east of the Lesser Antilles and in the west of the Caribbean Sea, then moving towards Florida. Typhoons are accompanied by heavy rains and strong winds that can cause great damage to the economy and the population of the island. The rivers in Cuba are short and shallow. Forests, covering about 10% of the territory, have been preserved only in mountainous and swampy areas. The fauna of the land is relatively poor. At the same time, in the waters surrounding Cuba there are valuable commercial fish, molluscs, lobsters, shrimps, and sponges.

Administrative division

Cuba is a unitary state. For political and administrative purposes, the national territory is divided into 14 provinces and the special municipality of Isle of Youth.

• Isla de la Juventud (Spanish: Isla de la Juventud)
• Pinar del Rio (Spanish: Pinar del Rio)
• Havana (Spanish: La Habana)
• City of Havana (Spanish: Ciudad de La Habana)
• Matanzas (Spanish Matanzas) Cienfuegos (Spanish Cienfuegos)
• Villa Clara (Spanish: Villa Clara)
• Sancti Spiritus (Spanish: Sancti Spiritus)
• Ciego de Avila (Spanish: Ciego de Avila)
• Camagüey (Spanish Camagüey) Las Tunas (Spanish Las Tunas)
• Granma (Spanish: Granma)
• Holguin (Spanish Holguin)
• Santiago de Cuba (Spanish: Santiago de Cuba)
• Guantanamo (Spanish: Guantanamo)

The island of Cuba has a railway (Cuban Railway, Ferrocarriles de Cuba) and a network of roads. Maritime and air communications have been established with other countries. Cuba's leading airline, Cubana de Aviación, has offices in 32 countries around the world.

Connection

After Castro came to power, the development of telecommunications on the island turned out to be extremely difficult. Cuba, however, received a lot of help from the Soviet Union, which provided some resources, such as communication channels.

In 2003, there were 2 ISPs operating on the island. National domain.cu.

Today, Cuba has a single mobile operator - ETECSA under the brand name Cubacel. An interesting fact is that until 2008 the use of mobile services for ordinary residents of the country was prohibited. Mobile communication services were allowed to be used only by foreign citizens and senior officials of the country. After Raul Castro abolished the terms of use mobile phones in the country, the national telecom operator - ETECSA - from April 14, 2008 began to provide communication services for ordinary citizens. Cuba currently operates the GSM 900 standard, and in some areas of Havana and the resort of Varadero - GSM 850.

Population

Cubans are a people of mixed origin. By the time the Spaniards arrived here, Cuba was inhabited by the tribes of Siboney, Arawak Indians, Guanachanabeys and Indians who had migrated from Haiti. But as a result of the Spanish colonization, the Indians were mostly exterminated.

Since the Spanish colonists needed a lot of labor, primarily to work on plantations, they began to import slaves from central Africa (mainly Yoruba, Ashanti, Ewe, Congo). Over 350 years, more than 1 million African slaves were imported by the Spaniards, their descendants make up 40% of the population. For the same reason, between 1853 and 1874, more than 125,000 Chinese were imported from Asia. Until now, in Havana, "China Town" has been preserved. In addition, Indian slaves were imported, but in small quantities, from the Yucatan, Central and South America. In the same period, 850,000 immigrants arrived from Spain, mostly Galicians, Castilians, Navarrese, Catalans, although it should be noted that not all of them remained to live in Cuba. They are collectively called the Gallego (Galicians). From the end of the XVIII century. a large stream of French from Haiti and Louisiana also arrived here. A fairly intense flow of immigrants was also from Germany, Italy and Britain. At the beginning of the 20th century, many Americans settled in Cuba, who created their colonies on about. Pinos (present. Isle of Youth). There were very strong waves of immigration to Cuba during and after the first and second world wars, primarily Jews moved here.

Data about racial composition Cubes are inconsistent. According to official data, the population of Cuba consists of whites - 65.1%, mulattoes - 24.8%, blacks - 10.1% (according to the 2002 census). According to the Institute for Cuban Studies at the University of Miami, 68% of Cubans are blacks and mulattoes. Minority rights group International claims that 51% of the population is mulatto.

In 1953, the proportion of the white population was 84%, but then decreased, mainly as a result of emigration after the revolution.

Story

The first European to arrive here was Columbus, who landed in the east of the archipelago in October 1492. In 1511, Diego Velasquez de Cuellar subjugated the indigenous population of the islands, built Fort Baracoa, and became the first Spanish governor of Cuba. By 1514, seven settlements had been founded. In 1515, Cuellar moved his headquarters to Santiago de Cuba, which became the first capital of Cuba. Colonization took place in the conditions of struggle with the indigenous population of the island - the Taino Indians, who made up 75% of the population.
In 1823, the first independence uprising was put down.
In 1868, the Ten Years' War for Cuban Independence began; The rebels were backed by the US. Hostilities culminated in 1872-1873, but then the rebels fought only in the eastern provinces, Camagüey and Oriente. In 1878, a peace agreement was signed that eliminated the most unpleasant legislative acts for the inhabitants of the island.
In 1895, a detachment of Cuban patriots landed in Cuba under the leadership of José Marti. This event was the starting point of a new war with the Spaniards, during which the Cubans gained control over almost the entire territory of the island, excluding major cities (see War of Independence of Cuba).
In 1898, the United States began a war with Spain, in which they won. Cuba becomes dependent on the US. The constitution stipulated the right of the United States to send troops to the territory of the country. This clause was abolished in 1934.
In 1933, as a result of a coup organized by revolutionaries led by Sergeant Fulgencio Batista, the dictator Gherardo Machado y Morales was overthrown and a democratic regime was established.
On March 10, 1952, Fulgencio Batista carried out a coup d'état and established a personal dictatorship.
On July 26, 1953, a group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro attempted to take over the Moncada barracks. The attempt was unsuccessful, and the participants in the assault ended up in prison, but this event became the starting point of the Cuban revolution. In 1955 the revolutionaries were granted amnesty. On December 2, 1956, a new group of revolutionaries landed from the Granma yacht in the east of the island and began military operations against the Batista government.
On January 1, 1959, the dictator Batista fled Cuba. At that moment, the rebel forces occupied the city of Santa Clara in the center of the island and controlled large areas of the area in the east, although the capital was not in immediate danger, and Batista remained at the disposal of significant military forces. Amid the power vacuum created by Batista's flight, on January 8, the rebel column entered Havana, where it was greeted with popular rejoicing.

As a result of the victory of the revolution, the government of the "left" orientation, headed by Fidel Castro, received power in Cuba, which then leaned towards the path of building socialism and is in power to this day. The ruling and only permitted party of the country is the Communist Party of Cuba. The government of Fidel Castro carried out agrarian reform, the nationalization of industrial assets, launched broad social transformations, which alienated many groups of the population, the result of the same process was the mass emigration of dissatisfied people, mainly to the United States, where a large diaspora of opponents of Castro and his policies was created.
In April 1961, Cuban emigrants, with the active support of the United States, landed an armed landing on the southern coast of the island with the goal of organizing a mass uprising against the policy of the new government in the future, but the intervention was quickly suppressed, and the expected social explosion did not occur. Subsequently, emigrant organizations repeatedly organized terrorist attacks and small-scale landings on Cuba, but without much result.

From the early 1960s to the early 1990s, Cuba was an ally of the USSR, which provided significant financial, economic and political support, actively supported the Marxist rebels and the Marxist regimes of Latin America (Puerto Rico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Bolivia, Peru, Brazil, Argentina, Chile), Africa (Ethiopia, Angola) and Asia, and also pursued a policy of providing humanitarian assistance to various countries of the world. In the late 1980s, more than 70,000 Cubans were abroad on military and humanitarian missions.

Immediately with the revolution of 1959, political repressions began (see repressions during the reign of Castro), primarily directed against the figures of the overthrown regime of the dictator Batista and CIA agents.

Castro reacted negatively to the perestroika policy in the USSR and even banned the distribution of a number of Soviet publications in Cuba (Moscow News, Novoye Vremya, etc.), and at the same time supported Gorbachev's main opponent, Yeltsin. According to Yeltsin's memoirs, Castro expressed sympathy for him both during the years of disgrace and later, after he came to power, despite the obvious anti-socialist nature of the reforms in Russia.

With the collapse of the USSR, Cuba suffered huge economic losses (up to half of GDP), and analysts predicted the imminent fall of the Castro government, but by 1994 the situation had basically stabilized, and the country's economic condition is currently assessed by international organizations as quite satisfactory.

On February 19, 2008, through the Granma newspaper, Fidel Castro announced his resignation from the post of chairman of the State Council and commander-in-chief of the Cuban troops. “To my dear fellow citizens, who have shown me the immeasurable honor of electing me as a member of Parliament, in which the most important decisions for the fate of the revolution will be made, I inform you that I do not intend and will not give my consent to take the post of Chairman of the State Council and Commander-in-Chief,” the appeal says.

Certain fears for the political stability of Cuba among observers are caused by the process of transfer of power from Fidel Castro to his heirs.

State structure

State administration is a republic. The legislature is a unicameral parliament (National Assembly).

Executive power belongs to the Chairman of the State Council (Head of State) and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Head of Government).

Economy

Advantages: The tourism industry attracts foreign investors. Export of sugar and nickel. Elite cigars. The banking sector is strengthening.

Weaknesses: Due to the US embargo, lack of access to important markets and investments. Acute currency deficit. Fluctuations in world prices for sugar and nickel. Sophisticated trade restrictions and a lack of regulation discourage investment. Bad infrastructure. Shortage of fuel, fertilizers and spare parts. Hurricane damage in 2001

There are different points of view regarding the level of development of Cuba before the revolution. According to a number of sources, in terms of GNP per capita, Cuba was ahead of Spain and Japan at that time. Robin Blackburn also wrote that Cuba was one of the richest countries in the underdeveloped category. Professor Maurice Halperin, who worked in Cuba immediately after the revolution, objected to the use of the term "underdeveloped" for pre-revolutionary Cuba, which, in his words, caused false associations with truly backward countries, and suggested calling it "medium developed." On the other hand, the Groningen Growth and Development Centre, having carried out their own retrospective calculations using a special method, received data stating that Cuba in 1958 was inferior to these countries and a number of Latin American ones.

According to statistics, in 1951 there were 122 thousand cars in Cuba for 5.5 million people, that is, 1 car for 41 people. At the same time, according to the authors of the Area Handbook for Cuba, “all this, as a fact, does not matter, since there were de facto two Cubas, in one the elite lived beautifully and comfortably, and in the other the most necessary things for life were not available.”

In 1960, a massive nationalization of the private sector was carried out. Currently, Cuba has one of the most state-owned economies in the world. In the second half of the 1960s. the government has been trying to abandon central planning in favor of sectoral planning and is moving towards experiments involving morale incentives and the widespread use of free forced labor. The fall in the level of production and the avoidance of forced labor forced a return to Soviet-style central planning. In the 1970s - 80s. with the help of the countries of the socialist block in Cuba, the basis of the industry is being created.

After the collapse of the USSR, there was a reduction in purchases of Cuban sugar and the cessation of economic assistance. For 1989-1993 Cuba's GDP has shrunk by a third. Economic collapse was averted by opening up the country to foreign capital in industry and tourism.

Venezuela (Hugo Chavez is a personal friend of Fidel Castro) provides Cuba with cheap oil; Cuba provides Venezuela with medical care.

According to official data, in 2006 GDP growth amounted to 12.5%. According to the CIA handbook, in 2007 real GDP growth was 7%.

The main branch of the Cuban economy is the sugar industry. The capacities of sugar factories in Cuba are capable of processing 670 thousand tons of sugar cane per day (production of 9-9.5 million tons of sugar per year). In the past, the industry developed extensively thanks to the support of the CMEA.

The Cuban government, in order to attract foreign investment, creates free economic zones (FEZs). In 1996, a law was adopted on the procedure for the creation and functioning of free economic zones. The term of the concession for the right to operate in the SEZ is 50 years. In 1997, three SEZs (Mariel, Havana City and Wahai) began to operate.

Exports ($3.8 billion in 2008) - sugar, nickel, tobacco, seafood, medical products, citrus fruits, coffee. The main export partners are China (28%), Canada (25%), Spain (6%), the Netherlands (5%), Iran (4%).

In November 2004, during a visit to Cuba by Chinese President Hu Jintao, an agreement was reached that China would invest $500 million in Cuba's nickel industry. In January 2008, Brazilian President Lula da Silva and the head of the state oil company Petrobras, Jose Sergio Gabrielli, who visited Cuba, announced their intention to invest $500 million in the exploration of Cuban hydrocarbon deposits in the Gulf of Mexico and the construction of an industrial oil plant in Cuba.

Cuba imports ($14.5 billion in 2008) oil products, foodstuffs, industrial equipment, chemical products. The main import partners are Venezuela (31.5%), China (11.8%), Spain (10.6%), Canada (6.7%), USA (6.6%).

The banking system of Cuba consists of the Central Bank, 8 commercial banks, 13 non-banking financial institutions, 13 representative offices of foreign banks and 4 representative offices of foreign financial institutions. There are 2 types of currency in Cuba. Citizens of Cuba receive black and white Cuban pesos, foreigners receive colored (convertible) pesos when exchanging currency. The Western media reported on the currency fraud of the top Cuban leadership and the F. Castro family.

Since 1962, a card system has been operating in Cuba, products are issued according to the same norms for the whole country. According to Cuban experts, at present, the population receives from 40 to 54 percent of the minimum required calories from products distributed by cards. Milk is given free of charge by the state to children under 6 years of age or purchased by the population in the market. Throughout the post-revolutionary years, there was a black market in Cuba. A number of goods, the distribution of which by cards is carried out irregularly or intended only for beneficiaries, are still purchased on the black market.

In 2008, Cubans were allowed to buy cell phones, computers, and DVD players, as well as 19- and 24-inch televisions, electric pressure cookers and electric bicycles, car alarms, and microwave ovens (but only with convertible currency). About 100 thousand cars are registered in the country, of which 60 thousand are old American cars that were on the island before the revolution.

According to the BBC broadcaster, there is an increase in prostitution and corruption in Cuba. The average monthly salary in Cuba is $12, but there are many government benefits. For example, free clothes are given to workers. There is a system of free medical care and free higher and secondary education.

Foreign policy

Panama

August 23, 2004 - President of Panama Mireya Moscoso announced the recall of the Panamanian ambassador from Cuba in response to a warning made on August 22 by the Cuban Foreign Ministry about its readiness to break off diplomatic relations with Panama if its authorities pardon the criminals who were preparing an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro. At the same time, the President of Panama noted that the recall of the Panamanian ambassador from Havana does not mean a break in diplomatic relations between the two countries.
August 25, 2004 - Cuban Ambassador to Panama Carlos Zamora, at the request of the Panamanian authorities, left for his homeland. Before leaving, he made a statement to the press, in which he noted that "Cuba considers it its duty to achieve an exemplary punishment of the terrorists" who were preparing an assassination attempt on Fidel Castro. March 2004 Supreme Court Panama sentenced six conspirators detained in Panama in 2000 to prison terms. The new President of Panama, Martin Torrijos, who takes office on September 1, expressed the hope that the Panama-Cuban conflict would be resolved on the basis of mutual "respect and common sense."

Russia

From the very beginning of the revolution in Cuba, the attitude of the leadership of the CPSU towards the Island of Freedom was ambiguous, in a sense similar to the position regarding the SFRY. First, neither the Castro brothers nor their associates were formally Leninists. Their theoretical base was limited to the legacy of Marx and Engels. Secondly, among other things, Cuba was fundamentally not part of military blocs. Highly appreciating freedom, Cuba, starting from the Belgrade Conference (Yugoslavia, September 1-6, 1961), was one of the most active participants in the Non-Aligned Movement. She joined the CMEA only in 1972.

January 21, 1964 - The USSR and Cuba signed a long-term agreement on the supply of sugar to the USSR.

Relations between Cuba and Russia changed after the collapse of the USSR, which, in particular, was caused by the cessation of economic assistance to Cuba and the reduction of the Soviet (Russian) military presence on the island. Soviet military bases were placed here in the early 1960s. Their existence was based on an agreement between the Soviet and American leadership reached after the "Caribbean crisis" in 1962. In 2001, the last Russian military base in Cuba was closed, and all remaining Russian troops were withdrawn from Liberty Island. Recently, since November 2008, there has been a revival of interest in building relations between Russia and Cuba that are economic, political, scientific and social in nature.

The United States owns the Guantanamo Bay military base in Cuba. The military base of Guantanamo Bay is located on the territory of southeastern Cuba, occupied by the United States under a 1901 treaty, which the Cuban authorities later abandoned. In January 2002, a prison for suspected international terrorism was established at the base, where the first 20 people accused of participating in hostilities on the side of the Taliban were brought from Afghanistan.

In relation to Cuba in 1961, the United States introduced an embargo regime, any ties with Cuba were prohibited, US sanctions against Cuba continue to operate as of 2008; this blockade is regularly condemned by the UN General Assembly.

However, now the US share in Cuba's imports is 6.6% (in 2008).

In 1962, the US Department of Defense planned Operation Northwoods, the purpose of which was to prepare American public opinion for an armed invasion of Cuba and the overthrow of the government of Fidel Castro. The operation was part of the Mongoose operation, developed by the US government at the initiative of President John F. Kennedy, directed against Cuba, and assumed the implementation of terrorist acts with imaginary and / or real victims in the United States, Cuba and other countries, including hijacking, imitation of hostile actions under a false flag, acts of terror organized by the state. However, Kennedy rejected the project.

In 2001, five Cuban agents (the "Cuban Five") were sentenced to long prison terms in the United States. According to them, they transmitted information about the upcoming terrorist attacks against Cuba.

In 2006, a committee was created at the US State Department, whose task is to develop US policy towards Cuba in the event of the death of Fidel Castro.

Participation in international organizations

Cuba is a member of the WTO and the World Customs Organization. Participates in international agreements - the New York Convention on International Arbitration, the Paris Convention and the Madrid Protocol.

healthcare

On the eve of the revolution, there were 6,000 doctors in Cuba, that is, 1 doctor per 1,000 people, which was equal to France. However, unlike developed countries, Cuba did not have a system of health insurance and cheap or free social medicine. Therefore, for example, the infant mortality rate was 100-110 per 1,000, which corresponded to the level of the most backward countries of Western Europe—Spain and pre-war Italy.

Immediately after the revolution, about 3 thousand doctors left the country. However, this shortcoming was filled by the organization of the medical education system.

Currently, the Cuban health care system is considered one of the best in the world and has extensive primary health care and scientific development programs. A 2009 CIA estimate put the average life expectancy in Cuba at 77.45 years. Cuba has the lowest infant mortality rate among Latin American countries. All types of medical care are free.

Public spending on health care (2004): 5.5% of GDP.

Education

Cuba has a traditionally high educational level of the population. Since the beginning of the 20th century, there has been a system of state free 9-grade elementary education for children from 6 to 14 years old (the ninth grade was optional, the rest are mandatory). In 1932, elementary schools (state and church) were attended by 90% of school-age children. In 1951, illiterates accounted for 22% of the adult population, which was lower than in Spain and pre-war Italy.

In 1961, a massive campaign to eradicate illiteracy began. As a result, in 1980 the number of illiterates was only 2%, and in 1990 Cuba became a country of complete literacy. A public average and graduate School. During the 1960s, the number of students doubled (from 717,000 to 1.5 million) with a population growth of 1-2% per year. In total, counting all stages of education, the number of people covered by them has tripled.

At present, Cuba has a compulsory nine-grade education (the average is a 12-grade education). There are 50 higher education centers. Education at all levels is free.

The main educational institution of the country is the University of Havana, located in different parts of the capital. Until 1999, Russian was also taught there as the main foreign language (faculty of the Pais brothers). The work of this faculty was supervised by the Central Moscow State University. After 1999, English became such. Other universities in Cuba: Agrarian University of Havana.

Budget spending on education (2002-05): 9% of GDP.

culture

Painting

Independent Cuban painting arose only at the end of the 19th century. In the 1930s, artists who visited Europe got acquainted with modern artistic trends there and brought them to Cuba. So, Marcelo Pogolotti used cubism to create images on topics related to the poverty of the Cuban people. The most famous Cuban artist, Wifredo Lam, painted in a surrealist style. Mario Carreño was greatly influenced by the work of Mexican muralists. Jorge Arche is known for his portraits, similar in style to those of other Latin American artists of the 1930s.

The science

Illiteracy was virtually eradicated in Cuba in 1961. Education here is free at all levels - from elementary school to higher education - and is compulsory up to the end of the ninth grade. All graduates of primary, secondary, high school and technical schools are guaranteed the opportunity to continue their studies, and graduates of higher educational institutions are guaranteed the right to work. Since 1959, higher education in Cuba has been made available to everyone. Now there are about 700,000 people with higher education in the country. Out of every seven Cuban workers, one has a diploma from a higher educational institution.

There are about 9,500 primary schools, about 2,000 secondary and 48 higher educational institutions in the country. The school is considered the basic cultural institution.

There are more than 170 research institutes in Cuba.

After the victory of the Revolution, up to the present day, about 630 thousand people graduated from higher educational institutions in various specialties in Cuba, and millions have received secondary education. The illiteracy rate (among the population aged ten years and over) is 3.8 percent.

There are 1,115 kindergartens in the country attended by 145.1 thousand children. Kindergarten services are used by 135,000 working mothers.

The total number of primary school students - 1,028,900 children of secondary school students - 778 thousand; students of higher educational institutions - 127 thousand. More than 100 thousand people are covered by the system of secondary and higher evening and correspondence education.

There are 9,487 elementary schools, 1,943 secondary schools and 48 institutions of higher education in Cuba. There are a total of 17.8 teachers for every thousand inhabitants. 9 percent of GDP is allocated for education. The country allocates significant funds for scientific research, in particular, related to human health, in the field of biotechnology and genetic engineering, the production of vaccines and numerous medicines; the results of these studies have received universal recognition. All this became possible thanks to the existence of significant human resources, including highly qualified specialists trained within the framework of the national education system.

Cuba also ranks 4-5 among the countries of Latin America (and 51 in the world) according to the UN classification in terms of Human Development.

Religion

In Cuba, the church is separated from the state, and the Cuban Constitution guarantees freedom of religion for the people. The most common religion is Catholic.

Despite the peculiarities of socialism as a socio-political system that has dominated the country for many decades, Cubans are quite religious. Even members of the Cuban Communist Party are not prohibited from attending churches. Catholic churches exist throughout the country. Even after the victory of the revolution, masses are celebrated daily and solemn services are held on national or local religious holidays.

With the arrival of black slaves on the island, various beliefs of African origin spread. Over time, three main currents were formed from them, which still exist and are popular today. These are Regla de Ocha (Spanish Regla de Ocha) or Santeria (Spanish Santeria), Las Reglas de Palo (Spanish Las Reglas de Palo) and La Sociedad Secret Abakua (Spanish La Sociedad Secreta Abacua). As a result of the historical process, a mixture of Catholic dogmas and African cults was also formed. For example, the Most Pure Virgin of Mercy of Cobra is considered by Catholics to be the patroness of Cuba. In Santeria, she goes by the name Ochun.

In recent years, Protestant churches have begun to appear, especially in the provinces.

Sport

Sports in Cuba are available to everyone, and this mass nature of it allows you to constantly replenish national teams in various sports that brought a small Caribbean island important world and Olympic awards. Cuba is the birthplace of world famous athletes. Baseball, boxing, athletics and volleyball stand out among the sports.

Armed forces

The Cuban Army (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias - FAR) is the main armed formation of Cuba, providing its national defense.

The Cuban constitution indicates that the president of the country is the supreme commander and determines the structure of its army.

The Cuban army includes the following units:
Ground troops
Navy
Air Force and Air Defense.

The Cuban army is under the leadership of Commander-in-Chief Raul Castro.

The daily newspaper of the Island of Freedom "Granma", bears the name of the yacht of the same name, on which a group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro landed in Cuba to carry out a guerrilla struggle against the Batista regime. The newspaper is the official guide and promoter of the policies pursued by the Cuban Communist Party (CCP). Once a week, Granma Internacional is published in English. Also, the press of Cuba is represented by such publications devoted to the problems of economy, tourism, finance, culture, politics, such as Opciones, Bohemia, Juventud Rebelde, Trabajadores.

State in the West Indies.
Territory - 110.86 thousand square meters. km. The capital is Havana.
Population - 11.16 million people. (1999).
The official language is Spanish.
Religion - Catholicism.
The island of Cuba was discovered by Columbus in 1492 and already in 1511 was colonized by the Spaniards. The indigenous Indian population was completely exterminated. After two wars of liberation (1868-1878 and 1895-1898), Cuba achieved independence from Spain. In 1956, a guerrilla war began on the island led by F. Castro against the dictatorial regime of Batista, which ended with the fall of the latter on January 1, 1959. In April 1961, F. Castro announced the socialist nature of the Cuban revolution.

State structure

Cuba is a unitary state. Administrative-territorial division - 14 provinces, which are divided into 169 municipalities.
The Constitution is in force, approved by a popular referendum on February 15, 1976 and entered into force on February 24, 1976. By the form of government, Cuba is a socialist republic with a one-party system. In July 1992, the National Assembly amended the Constitution, updating about 2/3 of its articles. The new version of the Basic Law, confirming the goal of building a socialist society, brings to the fore national liberation ideals, the principles of independence, sovereignty and identity as the ideological and political foundation of the state and society. At the same time, the ruling Communist Party of Cuba maintains full control over society. Political and ideological pluralism is not allowed, and some restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, and civil rights remain.
The highest body of state power is the National Assembly of People's Power (elected by universal direct secret suffrage for 5 years), endowed with legislative powers. From among its deputies, it elects the State Council, which represents the Assembly during the break between sessions, and also appoints members of the Council of Ministers of the highest executive and administrative body.
The State Council consists of a chairman, a first deputy, 5 vice-chairmen, a secretary and 23 members. The Council of State is a permanent body of the National Assembly of People's Power, representing it between sessions and implementing its decisions. The Council of State is accountable to the National Assembly of People's Power. The term of office of the Council of State expires at the conclusion of the election of a new Assembly. The Chairman of the State Council is the head of state and government, heads the National Defense Council.
The Council of State has the right to convene extraordinary sessions of the National Assembly of People's Power; adopt decree-laws between sessions of the National Assembly; to carry out a general and binding interpretation of existing laws; carry out legislative initiative; replace, on the proposal of the President, the members of the Council of Ministers between sessions of the National Assembly; give instructions of a general nature to the courts through the Presidium of the Supreme People's Court; to appoint and remove, at the suggestion of the chairman, the diplomatic representatives of Cuba in other states; award and confer honorary titles; to exercise the right of pardon; ratify and denounce international treaties; to suspend the orders of the Council of Ministers, the decisions and orders of the local assemblies of people's power, which are inconsistent with the Constitution or laws.
The powers of the President of the Council of State and the Head of Government are as follows: to represent the State and the Government and direct their general policy; organize and manage activities, convene and chair meetings of the State Council and the Council of Ministers; supervise and manage the activities of ministries and other central government bodies; assume leadership of any ministry or other central authority; propose for approval to the National Assembly members of the Council of Ministers; accept the resignation, propose to the National Assembly or the Council of State the replacement of any member of the Council of Ministers; exercise supreme command of the Revolutionary Armed Forces; sign decree-laws and other acts of the State Council and give orders for their official publication.
The highest executive authority is the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Cuba (Government), whose members are submitted for approval to the National Assembly by the President of the Council of State. The Council of Ministers is responsible and periodically reports on its activities to the National Assembly; he has the right to issue decrees and orders on the basis of and in pursuance of existing laws and to supervise their implementation.

Legal system

general characteristics

The legal system of Cuba belongs to the socialist legal family, retaining strong traditions of the Spanish heritage and certain features of Anglo-American law.
Before gaining independence, Cuba was a colony of Spain for almost four centuries and had predominantly Spanish law. During this period, a fairly complete legal system developed in Cuba, which was preserved with minor changes until the revolution of 1959. Spanish codes were put into effect (with minor changes) by royal decrees in Cuba. The Spanish Civil Code of 1888 was approved in this colony in 1889, the Civil Procedure Code of Spain of 1881 - in 1885. Cuba was a country with a dualistic system of private law. Along with the Civil Code, the Spanish Commercial, or Commercial, Code of 1886 was in force there. The Code of Criminal Procedure of Spain of 1882 began to operate on the island in 1889.
The right of an independent Cuba began to take shape in the course of the liberation war. Thus, on July 28, 1896, the National Liberation Army introduced the Military Procedure Law of the Cuban Republic, as well as a number of military criminal laws. After the declaration of independence, Spanish laws were not repealed and continued to be in force until replaced by new acts.
In the pre-socialist period, Cuba was one of the largest centers of legal thought in Latin America. There was a relatively large class of well-trained and highly professional lawyers in the country. One of them, Sánchez de Bustamante y Sirven (1865-1951), became famous as the author of the largest regional codification of private international law, known as the Bustamante Code (1925). The Code of Social Protection (CC) of Cuba, adopted in 1935, was distinguished by many innovative ideas.
A new period in the development of the Cuban legal system began after the victory of the 1959 revolution and the announcement of a course towards socialist reforms in the country (1961). The new government headed by F. Castro set about creating the first socialist state in the Western Hemisphere. The revolutionary authorities did not seek the immediate and complete abolition of the former legal system. The law in force after the revolution was a complex interweaving of old and new normative acts. So, they used (with numerous amendments) the Social Security Code of 1935, the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1882, the Military Procedure Code of 1896, etc.
In the 1970s. after a long preparatory period, the branches of the new socialist law were codified. In 1973, the General Part of the Criminal Code (Law of June 25, 1973) was adopted, then a new edition of the remaining parts of the Social Protection Code of 1935, in 1979 - a new Criminal Code in its entirety. In 1974, laws on civil, administrative and labor procedures were adopted, and in 1977, a new Code of Criminal Procedure and the Law on the Organization of the Judicial System. Finally, in 1975, the revised Civil Code and the first Family Code in the history of the country were adopted.
The result of the process of creating new legislation was the first Cuban Constitution, approved by referendum in 1976. Reflecting the general trend for socialist constitutions to expand the limits of constitutional regulation, the Basic Law covers all the main aspects of the life of Cuban society with its provisions. Its political basis was proclaimed by the Constitution the power of the working people, based on a strong alliance of the working class with the peasantry and other sections of the working people of the city and countryside, under the leadership of the working class and its vanguard, the Communist Party of Cuba.
In the 1980s adopted the Labor Code (1984), the new Civil Code (1987), the new edition of the Criminal Code (1987). In 1982, the General Law on Housing came into force, establishing the procedure for its distribution, management of the housing stock, and ensuring its safety.
The socialist period in the development of Cuban law is characterized by a combination of socialist legal principles, ideas and institutions borrowed from the USSR and other countries of the socialist camp, with a strong commitment to national legal traditions. The latter are based not only on the richest legal culture of the former metropolis - Spain, but also on their own, very interesting experience of the legal development of the pre-revolutionary period.
Among the main elements of the socialist legal system that remains in Cuba are the concept of "socialist legality", a one-party political system of the Soviet type, the priority of state and public interests over private ones, the privileged position of public property and the leading role of the state in the economy, party leadership of the courts and the law enforcement system as a whole.
The main sources of Cuban law are legislative and other normative acts, the hierarchy of which includes the Constitution, the laws of the National Assembly, the decree-laws of the Council of State, the decrees and resolutions of the Council of Ministers, the rules and instructions of the Supreme People's Court, the by-laws of the central government.

Civil and related
branches of law

Cuban private law has long developed as a colonial variant of Spanish private law. In 1889, the Spanish Civil Code of 1888 was introduced in Cuba, which in turn was built on the system of the French Code of 1804 and reproduces a significant number of its provisions.
The 1889 Code consisted of an Introductory Chapter and four books containing 1976 articles, 13 transitional and 3 additional regulations. Book I ("Persons") is devoted to individuals and family law (the position of legal entities was regulated not by the Civil Code, but by the Cuban Commercial Code of 1886), book II ("Property and Possession") - various types of property, ownership and other property rights, i.e. possession, use and common property, usufruct and servitudes, registration of property. Book III deals with the acquisition of property, pledges, donations, inheritances, and so on. Book IV covers the law of obligations.
Like all bourgeois Civil Codes of the first generation, the Code of 1889 was based on the principles of formal equality of citizens before the law, the "unrestricted and sacred" right to private property, the principle of "freedom" of contracts, the limited legal capacity of a married woman, and the disenfranchised status of illegitimate children.
The introduction of the Spanish Civil and Commercial Codes in Cuba was accompanied by a number of additions and changes, mainly related to the activities of commercial companies and partnerships. After the adoption of the democratic Constitution of 1940 in Cuba, the Civil Code was amended to expand the legal capacity of a married woman, granting some rights to illegitimate children, and a number of others.
After the 1959 revolution, the Civil Code of 1889 remained in force, but its effect was limited by a number of new legislative acts. First of all, the principles of inviolability of private property and freedom of contract were limited.
As early as 1959, the state established control over all capitalist enterprises in the country, restricting (in the public interest) the operation of private enterprise, as well as control over prices, currency circulation, and foreign trade. In 1959-1961. the nationalization is carried out first of the enterprises and property of American citizens, then of sugar refineries, factories, railways and other industrial and commercial enterprises.
During the agrarian reform, part of the land was nationalized, part was transferred to the peasants within a certain maximum. The plot received by the peasant was not the subject of contracts of sale and purchase, donation, lease, use, mortgage. This land could only be inherited, sold to the state or exchanged for another (with the special permission of the competent authorities). State estates were created on the basis of nationalized latifundia.
In 1975, a revised Civil Code was adopted. He reproduced those parts of the old Code that were not changed by the laws on agrarian and urban reforms, on nationalization. Marriage and family relations are separated from the Civil Code into the Family Code, adopted in the same 1975. The latter is generally based on principles common to socialist countries; at the same time, it has some peculiarities related to the political, economic and social conditions of Cuba. In accordance with the Constitution, marriage is based on the absolute equality of rights and obligations of spouses, who must take care of the preservation of the family and the harmonious upbringing of children through joint efforts and in such a way that these efforts do not interfere with either spouse in their social activities. Marriage is considered legal if it is registered. Judicial recognition of marriage is carried out in cases where the union between a woman and a man meets the requirements of unity and stability. Divorce is made by the court by mutual consent of the spouses or if the court determines that the marriage has lost its significance for the spouses, children, and therefore for society.
In 1987, the National Assembly adopted a new Civil Code of Cuba, which, as it were, summed up the socialist transformations in the civil law of the country. Socialist (state and cooperative) property, the property of small farmers in their land and other means and instruments of production, and the personal property of citizens were fixed as the main forms of property.
The Constitution of 1976 proclaimed that an economic system of socialism prevails in Cuba, based on public socialist ownership of the means of production and on the elimination of the exploitation of man by man (Article 14); the state organizes, directs and controls the economic life in the country in accordance with the Unified Plan for Social and Economic Development (Article 16).
Until the end of the 1980s. In Cuba, there was a centralized economy controlled by command and administrative methods, in which any private economic initiative was excluded. Since the early 1990s the government is carrying out reforms aimed at introducing market elements with the dominant positions of the public sector (legalizing dollar circulation in the domestic market, creating joint ventures, cooperating the public sector of agriculture and opening agricultural markets, allowing many types of individual labor activity, reorganizing the mechanism of economic management, attracting foreign investment). The legal basis for these reforms was laid with the revision of many provisions of the 1976 Constitution in 1992. Since June 1995, the list of permitted types of small private business activities has been significantly expanded, now including more than 140 items. In accordance with the Foreign Investment Law (1995), foreign investment is now allowed in almost all areas, "except education and health care", and the creation of enterprises with 100% foreign participation is allowed.
The regulation of business relations is based on the Spanish Commercial Code of 1885. Many of the provisions of this Code have been invalidated or modified by laws issued since 1958. Intellectual property rights in Cuba are regulated by the Inventors and Innovators Act of 1982 and Decree Law 68/83. So far, there is no bankruptcy law on the island.
Labor and social legislation in Cuba arose at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, an 8-hour working day was introduced for government officials, hotel workers, restaurants and cafes. A minimum wage was also introduced for officials. Some attempts were made to limit the exploitation of children (it was forbidden to hire teenagers under the age of 14). In 1916, compensation for industrial accidents was established, at the same time pension funds were introduced for elderly teachers, police and army personnel, employees of the court and other government agencies, port workers, workers of railways and urban transport.
The development of labor and social legislation began at a faster pace after the revolution of 1933. A presidential decree of September 19, 1933 established an 8-hour working day for all workers, in October 1933 - a 48-hour working week. However, this did not apply to agricultural workers, domestic servants, taxi drivers, etc. The decree of November 7, 1933 confirmed the right to unionize workers and employees of all specialties, with the exception of government officials, the army and the police. It also regulated the right to strike, which could not be held without prior appeal to arbitration (later other restrictions were introduced).
After the 1959 revolution and until the early 1990s. Cuban labor law developed on purely socialist principles. In accordance with the Constitution, labor was proclaimed the right, duty and honor of citizens. Cuban trade unions are state-owned and are under the complete control of the Communist Party. They are entrusted with the task of actively participating in educational activities. Strikes are prohibited by law and are not allowed in practice. An important role in the regulation of labor relations belongs to the Ministry of Labor. In 1984, the Labor Code of Cuba was adopted, reflecting the approach typical of socialist countries to the regulation of labor relations. It provides employees with numerous rights, benefits and social guarantees. Fixed 44-hour work week.
Since the early 1990s some adjustments are made to labor law related to the introduction of elements of market relations in the country. In September 1993, individual labor activity was legalized.
During the socialist period, the public health system was greatly developed, becoming the best in all of Latin America (Health Act 1983).

Criminal law and process

Until 1938, the Spanish Criminal Code of 1870 operated in Cuba. It proceeded from the division of all crimes into serious, or crimes proper, and less serious, or offenses. This division is preserved in Cuban criminal law to this day.
The first Criminal Code of independent Cuba was adopted in 1935 and finally put into effect in 1938, together with the rules on penalties prepared by the Ministry of Justice. This Code, called the "Code of Social Protection", reflected the ideas of the sociological school of law, which declared the task of criminal policy not to punish the criminal, but to protect society from criminal acts. The very term "punishment" is replaced by the term "sanction". The "dangerous condition" identified by specific symptoms was the criterion for the application of legal responsibility or "sanction". A distinction was made between criminal liability and security measures applied for the commission of harmful acts.
The 1935 Code consisted of four books and 594 articles, as well as a number of supplementary and transitional ordinances. Books one and two were, respectively, the General and Special Parts of the Criminal Code. Book Three dealt with disorderly conduct and other offenses that are not crimes but carry sanctions; methods of prevention, ensuring the safety of the "individual and society": forced detention in hospitals, agricultural colonies, correctional institutions, etc.
After the victory of the 1959 revolution, the criminal law was subject to constant changes, although the 1935 Code remained in force for a long time. The general trend was a constant tightening of criminal repression, especially in relation to "counter-revolutionary" actions. The first acts permitted the application to the defenders of the overthrown regime of laws adopted after the crime was committed. Adopted in July 1959, the Law on Increasing Liability for Political Crimes outlined in a new version chapters I, III, IV of the Social Security Code concerning crimes "against the integrity and security of the state and crimes against state power." The penalties included the death penalty and imprisonment for up to 30 years. In 1960, a number of serious malfeasances under Chapters V and VI of Part VIII of Book II of the Code of Social Protection (misappropriation of property, forgery with the purpose of embezzlement) were classified as counter-revolutionary. In 1961, liability for terrorist activities was increased.
In 1973, the General Part of the Criminal Code (Law of June 25, 1973) was adopted, and in 1979, a new Criminal Code in its entirety. The 1979 Criminal Code provided for the death penalty as an alternative punishment for a wide range of crimes. In the 1980s. there was a tendency to some softening of the Cuban criminal policy. When the Criminal Code was revised in December 1987, the death penalty was abolished for "crimes against collective security", certain types of "crimes against peace and international law as well as for robbery with violence or the threat of its use. In addition, a number of political crimes were completely decriminalized, the sanctions for many common crimes were reduced and the range of punishments alternative to imprisonment was increased. Nevertheless, the death penalty was retained as an alternative punishment in 23 articles, 19 of which were offenses against national security. For another 19 crimes, it was provided for by the War Crimes Act 1979.
The Cuban Criminal Code establishes the class character of criminal legislation, the priority of protecting state interests over personal ones, and the corresponding interpretation of the concept of crime. At the same time, unlike other socialist criminal codes, it reflects the concept of a "dangerous state" (pre-tort danger), and along with punishments, security measures are provided.
In the Special Part of the Criminal Code of Cuba, there are still quite a few offenses typical of socialist criminal law (using a position in a state-owned enterprise for personal gain, speculation, illegal exit from the country). In 1993, the possession of currency was decriminalized.
The main sources of criminal procedure law are the Constitution and the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1977 (replaced by the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1882). The Basic Law (Article 58) enshrines a number of important procedural guarantees, in particular, it is established that every accused has the right to defense; it is prohibited to use violence or coercion of any kind against persons in order to force them to testify; Any evidence obtained in violation of this rule shall be considered null and void, and those responsible for this shall be subject to the penalties provided for by law.
The Cuban criminal process is built on the principles of socialist legality, publicity, publicity, equality of citizens before the law and the courts. However, despite the general principles of the Code of Criminal Procedure of Cuba, it has a number of important differences from the legislation of other socialist countries, which is due to the preservation of a number of former legal traditions on the island.
Among the features of the Code of Criminal Procedure of Cuba is the presence of norms that determine the procedural order for the appointment of security measures. According to Article 404 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the competence of the municipal people's courts includes consideration of signs of pre-tort danger and the appointment of security measures in all cases where this is established by the substantive criminal law. In accordance with Article 405 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, proceedings for consideration of the sign of pre-tort danger begin at the written request of the prosecutor, which sets out the facts and data necessary to identify the person against whom the security measure is directed, and also proposes a specific measure. In the case of mental illness, drug addiction and dipsomania (binge drinking), such a petition may be filed by the guardian or legal representative of the person to whom the security measure is to be applied, and in their absence, the relative under whose guardianship the said person is. The final question about the measure of security is decided by the court (Article 417).
The Code of Criminal Procedure (but not the Constitution) of Cuba provides for such an institution as an appeal in the order of habeas corpus (appeal to the court of the lawfulness of detention). This institution was borrowed from the Anglo-Saxon legal system and was not used in the criminal procedure legislation of the USSR and other socialist states, since in them the supervision of the legality of detention and arrest was carried out exclusively by the prosecutor's office. According to the Code of Criminal Procedure of Cuba, a person may be held in custody for no more than 7 days before a court decision.
If the Soviet criminal procedure legislation knew only cassation, then the Cuban one provides for both cassation and appeal.
In municipal courts, criminal cases are considered by boards of one professional judge and two people's assessors. More serious criminal cases in the provincial courts are heard by panels of 3 professional judges and 2 lay judges.
A special, complicated procedure has been established for the imposition of death sentences. Cases of crimes punishable by death, which fall under the jurisdiction of civil courts, are first heard in the provincial people's court. Cases in which death sentences have been passed are automatically sent to the Supreme People's Court for review. If this court upholds the verdict, the Minister of Justice examines the case and makes recommendations to the Council of State. The State Council has the right to decide whether to execute the convicted person or pardon; pardon takes the form of commutation of the death penalty by imprisonment for a term not exceeding 30 years.
According to international observers, the procedural guarantees and principles of justice provided for by law are often not respected in practice, especially in relation to political prisoners.

Judicial system. Control bodies

The foundations of the judiciary are enshrined in Chapter X of the Cuban Constitution, "Courts and Prosecutors". The function of administering justice belongs to the people and is carried out on their behalf by the Supreme People's Court and other courts established by law (art. 121). The courts constitute a system of state bodies, functionally independent of any other bodies and subordinate only to the National Assembly of People's Power and the Council of State (Article 122). Judges in the exercise of their functions are independent and subject only to the law.
In accordance with Article 124 of the Constitution, the Supreme People's Court is the highest court and its decisions are final. Through its presidium, it exercises legislative initiative and powers in accordance with the regulations, adopts decisions and issues rules binding on all people's courts, and on the basis of their experience issues binding instructions to establish uniform judicial practice in the interpretation and application of the law.
The provisions of Article 124 of the Constitution are reproduced in paragraph "b" of Article 21 of the Law "On the Organization of the Judicial System". The plenum of the Supreme People's Court of the Republic may send judges of this court to the provincial and municipal people's courts to examine the sentences passed, to obtain data on the state of crime, as well as on various aspects of the activities of these courts, to collect information on the correct and uniform application of the law and in connection with the issuance of relevant instructions. The Plenum, through the Governing Council, controls and supervises the judicial activities of all courts.
The second link of the Cuban legal system is made up of provincial courts, which consider certain categories of criminal, civil and other cases at first instance, as well as complaints against decisions of municipal courts that make up the lower link. Municipal courts consider at first instance the bulk of all criminal, civil and other cases. A separate vertical is formed by military tribunals, for which the highest authority is the military chamber of the Supreme People's Court.
The Supreme People's Court and the provincial courts are composed of chambers (salas) for criminal, civil, administrative, labor and national security matters (the Supreme People's Court is also a military chamber).
All courts decide collectively. Professional judges and people's assessors have equal rights and duties.
Courts report on their activities to the Assembly that elected them at least once a year. The right to recall judges belongs to the body that elected them. Article 66 of the Cuban Constitution stipulates that all courts are elected and renewed periodically. The Law on the Organization of the Judicial System of 1977 regulates in detail the procedure for the selection of judges and assessors, and also indicates the requirements that must be met by persons elected to the position of judges and as assessors. According to Article 66 of this Law, a judge must be fit to practice advocacy; have a diploma issued or validated by a university or an authorized official institution; be a Cuban citizen by birth or naturalization; actively participate in revolutionary activities; to be of high moral character and to enjoy a worthy reputation.
Cuba still has comrades' courts for petty offenses and certain types of civil disputes.
Prosecution in criminal cases (only for crimes, not misdemeanors) and general supervision is carried out by the prosecutor's office. In accordance with the Constitution (Article 130), the main task of the General Prosecutor's Office of the Republic is to control the observance of socialist legality by state bodies, economic and social institutions and citizens. The prosecutor's office also initiates petitions for the application of security measures, approves search warrants, checks the lawfulness of detention, monitors the execution of sentences, and represents the public interest in non-criminal types of proceedings.
The Attorney General's Office is a single body subordinated exclusively to the National Assembly of People's Power and the Council of State. The Attorney General receives instructions directly from the Council of State and reports on his activities to the National People's Power Assembly at least once a year. He directs the activities of the prosecutor's office throughout the national territory. The prosecutor's office is organized vertically, reports only to the Prosecutor General's Office and is independent of local authorities.
The Attorney General and his deputies are elected and may be recalled by the National Assembly of People's Power. The Prosecutor General is ex officio a member of the Presidium of the Supreme People's Court.

Literature

Krasheninnikova N.A. History of the State and Law of Cuba. M., 1966.
Azieri M. Introduction to Cuban Socialist Law // Review of Socialist Law. Vol. 6. 1980. P.153-163.
Berman H.J. Impressions of Cuban Law // American Journal of Comparative Law. Vol. 28. 1980. P. 475-486.
Lisborne J. Cuba // International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law. Vol. 1. 1977. P.C95-102.

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