Chapter #8

Lecture No. 36

Culture of Russia in the 19th century

First half of the 19th century

Education and science

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education finally took shape in Russia. Held in 1803 year, the reform in the field of education led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial city, and in every county town schools. Parish schools were also created in the countryside, they accepted children of different classes. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions.

IN 1811 was opened Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum, in which representatives of the highest noble society studied (including A.S. Pushkin),

The government of Alexander I paid great attention to the development of higher education. In addition to the only Moscow University in Russia before that, only in the first two decades of the century five new ones were opened: Derpt (1802), Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1804), Vilensky (1804), Petersburg (1819).

Under Nicholas I, all types of schools were preserved, but each of them became class-separated. Parish one-class schools were now intended for representatives of the "bottom". They taught the Law of God, literacy and arithmetic for a year. The children of merchants, artisans, and philistines were admitted to county three-year schools. Here they taught the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, history and geography. Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild studied in seven-grade gymnasiums. In 1827, the authorities once again pointed out the impossibility of teaching the children of serfs in gymnasiums and universities. The control over universities, which were considered sources of "unreliability", was strengthened. In 1835, the universities were deprived of the status of internal autonomy.

The number of military educational institutions, in which mainly young nobles were trained, is increasing. In 1832, the Imperial Military Academy was opened, in 1855, the Artillery and Engineering Academy.

The growth of industrial production and the development of technology caused an increase in the need for specialists in technical specialties. In the first half of the 19th century, the number of vocational schools increased. In the early 1830s, the Institute of Civil Engineers, the Forestry Institute, the Polytechnic Institute, the Institute of Railway Engineers, and the Mining Institute were opened in St. Petersburg. The Commercial Academy, the Agricultural School, the Mining School, and the Technical School were opened in Moscow.

The development of domestic science also contributed to the improvement of the education system.

Scientific discoveries

Biology
Ivan Alekseevich Dvigubsky	He refuted the statement about the immutability of plants and animals, he argued that the earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it over time undergo fundamental changes under the influence of natural causes.
Ustin Evdokimovich Dyadkovsky	He put forward and proved the idea that all phenomena in nature are due to natural causes and are subject to the general laws of development. Life, in his opinion, is a continuous physical and chemical process.
Karl Maksimovich Baer	A serious step forward in substantiating ideas about the development of living organisms was the work "The Universal Law of the Development of Nature".
Medicine
Nikolay Ivanovich Pirogov	Professor of the Medico-Surgical Academy, founder of military field surgery. During the years of the Crimean War, for the first time in the field, he used anesthesia during an operation, used a fixed plaster cast for the treatment of fractures.
Mathematics
Nikolay Ivanovich Lobachevsky	Created non-Euclidean geometry
Physics
Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov	Developed a galvanic battery. It made it possible to obtain a stable electric arc - the prototype of the future electric light bulb.
Boris Semenovich Jacobi	Invented the electric motor, electroforming - a method of applying a thin layer of metal to the desired surface using electricity. Invented the direct-printing machine for the telegraph
Emil Khristianovich Lenz	Established a rule for determining the direction of the driving force of induction (Lenz's law0, and a year later, on this basis, an electric motor was invented
Pavel Lvovich Schilling	Created the world's first practical electric telegraph - a device for transmitting written messages over wires
Chemistry
Konstantin Sigismundovich Kirchhoff	Developed a method for obtaining glucose.
German Ivanovich Hess	He discovered the basic law of thermochemistry, which expressed the principle of conservation of energy in relation to chemical processes
Petr Grigorievich Sobolevsky and Vasily Vasilyevich Lyubarsky	Laid the foundation of powder metallurgy
Science in production
Pavel Petrovich Anosov	Developed four options for the technology of producing damask steel
Yefim and Miron Cherepanov, serf mechanics	Built the first steam railway
Chemists N.N. Zinin and A.M. Butlerov	Created sustainable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry
Story
Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin	Wrote a 12-volume "History of the Russian State"
Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov	Wrote "History of Russia from ancient times" in 29 volumes

Russian pioneers and travelers

Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern and Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky	In 1803-1806, during the first Russian round-the-world expedition, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska, the islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. As a result of the expedition, Kruzenshtern was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the published Atlas South Seas».
Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev	In 1819-1821. Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on boats (single-masted ships) "Vostok" and "Mirny". In 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent." After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands, called the islands of the Russians. For 751 days of navigation, Russian sailors made the most important geographical discoveries, valuable collections were brought, data from observations of the waters of the world ocean and the ice cover of a continent new to mankind
Alexander Andreevich Baranov	He made a huge contribution to the development of Russian America. As a merchant, he led the search for minerals, founded Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary. It was he who managed to secure vast territories on the Pacific coast for Russia North America
Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky	In 1848-1855. he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, open a number of new territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur.
Evfimy Vasilyevich Putyatin	In 1852-1855. being the leader of the expedition discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands. Together with Nevelsky, he laid the foundation for securing the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

Art culture

"Golden Age" of Russian Literature

In the first half of the 19th century, Russian literature entered its "golden age". She raised the most important social problems, one of the main among them was the problem of strengthening national identity. Writers and poets turned to the historical past of the country, tried to find answers to modern questions in it.

An important feature of the development of literature and art of this time was the rapid change in artistic trends and the simultaneous existence of various artistic styles.

The dominant trend in Russian and European art at the beginning of the 19th century remained classicism. His followers imitated classical ancient art. However, Russian classicism had its own characteristics. If in the second half of the 18th century, he was more connected with the ideas of the Enlightenment of the people, then under the influence of the Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of serving the sovereign and the Fatherland were laid in the basis of the works of classicism.

The most striking example of a combination of literary work and the activities of a historian was the work of Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin. In the story “Marfa Posadnitsa, or the Conquest of Novgorod”, he compares the republican (embodied in the history of Novgorod) and autocratic (Moscow) traditions of Russian history. Despite his sympathy for republican ideas, Karamzin makes his choice in favor of autocracy, and thus a united and strong Russian state. These thoughts were imbued with his scientific work "History of the Russian State".

The sentimentalism of Karamzin and other writers manifested itself in the idealization of rural life, the relationship between peasants and landowners, the moral traits of a person of previous eras.

One of the leading trends in the artistic culture of the first decades of the 19th century was romanticism. Romanticism is a trend in literature and art, which is characterized by a special interest in an extraordinary personality, a lonely hero who opposes himself, the world of his soul to the world around him.

Russian romanticism was distinguished by an increased interest in national identity, traditions, national history, the assertion of a strong, liberated personality.

The creator of Russian romanticism is Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, a poet whose works: the ballads "Lyudmila" and "Svetlana" became models of the style of new literature.

In addition to him, representatives of romanticism were the Decembrist poets K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, A.I. Odoevsky.

At the beginning of their work, romantic works were created by the great poets Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov. Their works, in contrast to the dreamy and sometimes mystical works of Zhukovsky, were characterized by vital optimism, an active position in the struggle for ideals. These features were predominant in the romantic literature of the early 19th century, and it was they that marked the transition to realism, which became the main style in the 3-40s. outstanding examples of literature in this direction were the works of late Pushkin (rightfully considered the founder of realism in Russian literature) - the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tale", the poem "The Bronze Horseman", etc. as well as Lermontov's novel "A Hero of Our Time".

In the 20-50s. another new trend is gaining ground - realism. His followers tried to depict the surrounding reality in its most typical manifestations. One of the currents of the new style was critical realism, revealing the unfavorable aspects of life and the very content of the works requiring changes.

The founder of the "natural school" (critical realism) was Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. One of the brightest works of this artistic direction was his story "The Overcoat", which, along with his other works: "Dead Souls", "The Inspector General", and others, began the "Gogol period" of Russian literature of the 30-40s. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” F.M. Dostoevsky.

The realistic world of the Russian merchant class was shown to the reader in his first drama "Our people - let's get along" by Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, who revealed the distinctive features of the representatives of the merchant class, which was rapidly increasing its importance. The playwright worked in his youth at the Moscow Commercial Court, where he gained rich life experience related to the life and customs of the Russian merchant class.

In the 40-50s. The central place in literature was occupied by the theme of the serf village, its customs and mores. A literary event was the publication of Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev's Notes of a Hunter, who described not only the nature of the Central Russian zone, but also the serfs, to whom he treated with sympathy and kindness.

The hopeless poverty and downtroddenness of the serf were depicted in the stories of Dmitry Vasilyevich Grigorovich "The Village" and "Anton-Goremyk". As one of his contemporaries wrote, "not a single educated person of that time ... could read without tears about the misfortunes of Anton and not be indignant at the horrors of serfdom."

The first half of the 19th century was the time of the formation of the modern literary language, based on the traditions of folk speech and replacing the heavy written speech of the previous century.

Theater

In the Russian theater, the change of artistic trends took place as quickly as in literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century, classicism dominated the stage of Russian theaters with its inherent antique and mythological plots, external splendor.

In the 20-30s. a romantic school appears with its characteristic inner experience of the characters. Pavel Stepanovich Mochalov, who gained particular popularity in the roles of Hamlet (in the tragedy of the same name by W. Shakespeare) and Ferdinand (in F. Schiller's drama "Cunning and Love"), became the largest representative of romanticism in the Russian theater. His game was distinguished by violent emotionality, and his heroes were distinguished by a selfless struggle for freedom and justice.

In the 40s. a new page begins in the history of the Russian theater, associated with the development of the realistic direction. In dramaturgy, it was associated with the works of Pushkin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky. The founder of realism on the Russian stage was the great actor of the Moscow Maly Theater Mikhail Semenovich Shchepkin, a native of serfs. He was a true reformer of Russian acting art. Shchepkin was the first to suggest subordinating the entire performance to a single idea. Each new role of Shchepkin in the Maly Theater became the biggest social event in the life of Moscow.

Another remarkable actor of the stage realism school was Alexander Martynov. His work is associated with the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. With great skill he conveyed the experiences and everyday life of the "little man" of his time.

An important feature of the development of the theater in those years was that the previously unified Petrovsky Theater in Moscow in 1824 was divided into the Bolshoi (intended for opera and ballet productions) and the Maly (drama). In St. Petersburg, the most famous was the Alexandrinsky Theatre, which differed from the more democratic Maly Theater in its official character.

Music

Music, more than other forms of art, was influenced by the heroic 1812. If earlier everyday opera prevailed, now composers turned to the heroic plots of Russia's historical past. One of the first in this series was the opera by K.A. Kavos "Ivan Susanin".

The entire first half of the 19th century was marked by the strengthening of Russian national themes and the influence of folk melodies in musical works. Folk motifs sounded in the musical works of A.E. Varlamova, A.A. Alyabeva, A.L. Gurilev.

The romantic direction in musical art belongs to Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka, who laid the foundations of the Russian national school in music. “The people create music,” he said, and we, the artists, only arrange it.

Glinka managed to establish in Russian music not only folk, but also realistic traditions. He became the ancestor of the main genres of domestic professional music. The most vivid idea of ​​the composer's work is given by his opera A Life for the Tsar (Ivan Susanin). In it, Glinka glorified a simple patriotic peasant and at the same time the courage, steadfastness and greatness of the character of the entire Russian people.

Development national theme another Russian composer, Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky, continued in music. His main work - the opera "Mermaid" - marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Painting

During this period, there is a rejection of classicism with its characteristic biblical and mythological plots, admiration for the classical heritage of Greece and Rome. There is a growing interest of artists in the personality of a person, in the life of not only gods and kings, but also ordinary people.

The largest figure of classicism in Russian painting was Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. In one of his most famous and large-scale works - "The Last Day of Pompeii" - for the first time he presented the people as a hero, conveying the dignity, heroism and greatness of an ordinary person in a natural disaster. In this work, Bryullov marked the desire for realism. It manifested itself in all his paintings: “Self-portrait”, “Horsewoman”, etc.

The outstanding portrait painters Orest Adamovich Kiprensky and Vasily Andreevich Tropinin became prominent representatives of romanticism in painting. Kiprensky created portraits of A.S., remarkable in their expressiveness. Pushkin and A.N. Olenin (President of the Academy of Arts). In them, he showed the sublime beginning, the inner world of the moods and experiences of his heroes, known throughout Russia. A distinctive feature of Tropinin's work was showing a person in his surroundings, doing what he loves. Such are his genre portraits “Lacemaker”, “Guitarist”, “Golden stitcher”, etc. Tropinin is also famous for the fact that he became the author of the second lifetime portrait of A.S. Pushkin.

One of the greatest masters of Russian painting was Alexander Andreevich Ivanov. The main work of his life was the painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People", on the creation of which the artist worked for 20 years. The main idea of ​​the picture is confidence in the need for moral renewal of people. Each person from the set depicted in the picture is individual and unique. The artist managed to show the high purpose of education. Words that can show people the way to a better future.

The founder of critical realism in Russian painting was Pavel Andreevich Fedotov. In his genre paintings, he was able to express major social problems. Such were, for example, his works: "The Fresh Cavalier" and "Major's Matchmaking", in which the drama of situations is visible, the critical position of the author in relation to reality.

The birth of the everyday genre, popular in the 19th century, is associated with the work of Alexei Gavrilovich Venetsianov. His paintings have become a real discovery in Russian painting. They were dedicated to the daily work and life of the peasants. In the works of the 20s. “On the arable land. Spring”, “In the harvest. Summer”, “Zakharka”, in the portrait gallery of the peasants, he depicted their life in poetic colors, subtly feeling and conveying the beauty of his native nature. This direction of painting is commonly called the "Venetian school".

I.K. worked in the seascape genre. Aivazovsky. His canvases amaze with a surprisingly picturesque image of the sea element. The painting “The Ninth Wave” gained particular fame, which is a vivid example of the master’s unsurpassed professionalism and testifies to the romantic warehouse of his work during this period.

The center of the artistic life of Russia at that time was the School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture, opened in 1832 in Moscow.

Architecture

In the architecture of the first half of the century, classicism lingered longer than in other areas of artistic creativity. He dominated almost until the 40s. Its pinnacle at the beginning of the 19th century was the style empire, expressed in massive monumental forms, rich decorations, austerity of lines inherited from imperial Rome. An important element of the Empire was also sculptures that complemented the architectural design of buildings. Palaces and mansions of the nobility, buildings of higher government institutions, meetings of the nobility, government offices, theaters and even temples were built in the Empire style.

The beginning of the 19th century was a time of rapid development of the capitals of St. Petersburg and Moscow, as well as the central part of large provincial cities. A feature of the construction of this period was the creation of architectural ensembles - a number of buildings and structures, united into a single whole. It was then that the Palace, Admiralteyskaya and Senate Square, in Moscow - Teatralnaya.

The largest representatives of the Russian Empire were Andrey Dmitrievich Zakharov, who created the building of the Admiralty in St. Petersburg, Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin, who built the Kazan Cathedral, which laid the foundation for the ensemble of Nevsky Prospekt.

Karl Ivanovich Rossi also worked in the Empire style, who created the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the Public Library, the Senate and the Synod.

In Moscow, in the Empire style, the works of Osip Ivanovich Bove were made: Red Square reconstructed after the fire of 1812, Theater Square with the Bolshoi Theater, Triumphal Gates, etc.

The architects Domenico Gilardi and Afanasy Grigoryevich Grigoriev worked a lot and fruitfully in Moscow. They restored the public buildings of Moscow destroyed by fire in 1812: the Sloboda Palace, the Catherine Institute, Moscow University.

With the beginning of the decline of classicism in the 30s. the "Russian-Byzantine" style begins to spread. The architect Konstantin Andreevich Ton created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Grand Kremlin Palace, the Armory, the Nikolaevsky (now Leningradsky) railway station, etc. in this style.

the largest Orthodox church Petersburg was St. Isaac's Cathedral, built in 1818-1858. designed by the architect Auguste Montferan, under the personal control of Emperor Nicholas I.

Architect O. Monferrano. Saint Isaac's Cathedral

The interior of St. Isaac's Cathedral

Sculpture

The development of sculpture was closely linked with the development of architecture. Especially a lot of works organically inscribed in architectural ensembles was created by sculptors Ivan Petrovich Vitali: a bust of Pushkin, angels at the lamps on the corners of St. Isaac's Cathedral and Pyotr Karlovich Klodt: "Horse Tamer" on the Anichkov Bridge. In St. Petersburg, an equestrian monument to Nicholas I installed on the square in front of St. Isaac's Cathedral.

In 1804, Ivan Petrovich Martos creates a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.

Monument to Kozma Minin and Dmitry Pozharsky, one of the most famous monuments Moscow. It is located on Red Square, next to St. Basil's Cathedral. It was the first monument in Moscow erected not in honor of the sovereign, but in honor of the people's heroes. Funds for the monument were collected by popular subscription. Martos worked on the monument from 1804 to 1817. This is the best creation of Martos, who managed to embody in it the high ideals of civic prowess and patriotism. The sculptor depicted the moment when Kuzma Minin, pointing to Moscow, hands Prince Pozharsky an old sword and urges him to stand at the head of the Russian army. Leaning on a shield, the wounded governor rises from his bed, which symbolizes the awakening of national consciousness at a difficult time for the Fatherland.

The first half of the 19th century went down in history as the beginning "golden age" Russian artistic culture. It was distinguished by: the rapid change of artistic styles and trends, the mutual enrichment and close interconnection of literature and other areas of art, the strengthening of the public sound of the created works, the organic unity and complementarity of the best examples of Western European and Russian folk culture. All this made the artistic culture of Russia diverse and polyphonic, led to an increase in its influence on the life of not only the enlightened strata of society, but also millions of ordinary people.

Second half of the 19th century

Education

The first two decades after the abolition of serfdom passed under the sign of the awareness by society and the state of the need for broad education of the people. The reform in the field of education carried out in 1864 expanded the network of primary educational institutions in Russia, which were divided into three types:

1) zemstvo schools created by the forces of zemstvos

2) church schools

3) public schools of the Ministry of public education

According to the reform, secondary educational institutions were divided into two types:

- classical gymnasiums- in them the main emphasis was placed on the study of subjects of the humanities cycle, graduates of gymnasiums could enter universities without exams;

Real schools - differed from gymnasiums in greater attention to the natural sciences: mathematics, physics, chemistry, real schools prepared for admission to technical higher educational institutions.

Zemstvos began to play a huge role in the spread of education. From 1864 to 1874 alone, almost 10,000 zemstvo schools were opened. The government gave preference to parochial schools, but the state did not have enough money to maintain them. That's why zemstvo school continued to be the most common type elementary school, covering all provincial and district cities, as well as many rural areas. Gymnasiums were the main type of secondary school. In 1861, there were 85 men's gymnasiums in Russia; a quarter of a century later, the number of gymnasiums tripled. about 300 women's gymnasiums were opened.

There were also advances in higher education. New universities opened in Tomsk and Odessa. In 1863, a new university charter came into effect, expanding the rights of universities to self-govern.

There were special higher educational institutions - Medical and Surgical Academy, Technological, Mining, Communications, Electrotechnical Universities, Petrovsky Agricultural Academy. There was a formation of higher education for women. By the end of the 19th century, there were more than 60 state higher educational institutions in Russia.

However, in general, the literacy rate of the Russian population remained one of the lowest in Europe. According to the 1897 census, the average literacy rate of the country's population was 21.1%. Higher education had a little more than 1% of the population, an average of 4%.

Scientific discoveries

Mathematics and physics
Pafnuty Lvovich Chebyshev - mathematician and physicist	Designed a walking machine. Imitating the movement of an animal when walking, as well as an automatic calculating machine - adding machine.
Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov - physicist	By measuring the ratio of electromagnetic electrostatic units, he obtained a value close to the speed of light, this discovery contributed to the approval of the electromagnetic theory of light
Alexander Stepanovich Popov - physicist	He made a receiver-transmitter, after a few years he achieved a 150-kilometer transmission and reception range. He was awarded the Grand Gold Medal for his discovery. world exhibition in Paris in 1900
Pavel Nikolaevich Yablochkov - physicist	Created an arc light bulb, which soon lit up the streets and houses of many cities around the world
Naval officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky	Designed the world's first airplane
Self-taught mechanic Fedor Abramovich Blinov	Invented caterpillar tractor
Chemistry, biology
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev - chemist	Discovered the periodic law of the elements
Rector of Kazan University Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov, chemist	Laid the foundations of organic chemistry
Vasily Vasilyevich Dokuchaev - soil scientist	Dokuchaev's published works on Russian soils were awarded a gold medal, in his book he outlined a plan to combat the drought that hit the black earth belt of Russia by planting windbreaks.
Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov - biologist	He created the doctrine of the reflexes of the brain, thereby carrying out a revolution in biological science. He was the first to scientifically prove the unity and mutual conditioning of mental and bodily phenomena, emphasizing that mental activity is nothing but the result of the work of the brain.
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov - biologist	He created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes, which marked the beginning of modern ideas about the brain of animals and humans. Pavlov proved that the conditioned reflex is the highest and latest form of adaptation of the organism to the environment. If the unconditioned reflex is a relatively constant innate reaction of the organism, inherent in all representatives of this species, then the conditioned reflex is a new acquisition of the organism, the result of its accumulation of individual life experience.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov and Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya - biologists	They organized the first bacteriological station in Russia, developed methods for fighting rabies, and paid great attention to the fight against pests of agricultural plants.
Geography
Academician, Admiral Fyodor Petrovich Litke - geographer	Explored Kamchatka, Chukotka and a number of islands in the North Pacific
Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky - geographer	He made major geological and zoological surveys of Central Asia, discovered a number of mountain ranges and large mountain lakes unknown to Europeans, for the first time descriptions of some animals were given: a wild horse, a wild camel, a Tibetan bear. In the herbarium he collected, which numbered up to 16 thousand copies, 218 new plant species were discovered
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay - geographer	He devoted his life to the study of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. For two and a half years he lived on the northeast coast of New Guinea. Won the love and trust of its inhabitants. He visited the southwestern coast of this island, the southeastern coast, made two difficult journeys to the hinterland of Malacca, visited the Philippines and Indonesia, lived in Australia, where he founded a biological station.
Humanitarian sciences
Professor, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology, and then Rector of Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov	Created a 29-volume "History of Russia from ancient times." His Public Readings on Peter the Great, timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of the birth of the great reformer of Russia, became a major scientific and social phenomenon. He was also a supporter of the comparative historical method of research, pointing out the common features of the development of Russia and Western Europe.
Solovyov's student Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky	Brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation "Boyar Duma" at Moscow University. Ancient Rus'". He was the author of the "Course of Russian History", which he read at Moscow University.

Domestic science second half of XIX century came to the forefront. Russian scientists have made a significant contribution to the development of world scientific thought. The reasons for this phenomenon were those favorable changes in the life of the country that came along with the abolition of serfdom, they awakened the initiative of the Russian people.

Literature

The main artistic direction of the second half of the 19th century was critical realism. He was distinguished by increased attention to the display of real life based on its critical perception. The literature of that time was characterized by the spirit of accusation, a close interest in the life of the common man, the desire to find ways and means of combating the vices of society. The most striking example of critical literature is the work of Mikhail Evgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin. Russia appears funny, but at the same time terrible in the works of the satirist: “Provincial Essays”, “History of a City”, “Lord Golovlev”, “Pompadours and Pompadourses”. The artistic technique used by the writer is the grotesque. In his works, he brings to the extreme all the existing vices and weaknesses. The writer knows no mercy either for officials, or for representatives of high society, for merchants, or for the emerging bourgeoisie.

Who: Semyon Dezhnev, Cossack chieftain, merchant, fur trader.

When: 1648

What opened: The first to pass was the Bering Strait, which separates Eurasia from North America.

Thus, I found out that Eurasia and North America are two different continents, and that they do not merge.

Who: Thaddeus Bellingshausen, Russian admiral, navigator.

Trips

When: 1820.

What opened: Antarctica together with Mikhail Lazarev on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.

Commanded the East. Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent.

Also, the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev finally dispelled the myth of the existence of the mythical " southern mainland”, which was erroneously marked on all medieval maps of Europe.

Navigators, including the famous Captain James Cook, searched without any success in Indian Ocean this "Southern Continent" is over three hundred and fifty years old, and of course nothing has been found.

Who: Kamchaty Ivan, Cossack and sable hunter.

When: 1650s.

What opened: peninsulas of Kamchatka, named after him.

Who: Semyon Chelyuskin, polar explorer, Russian Navy officer

When: 1742

What opened: the northernmost cape of Eurasia, named Cape Chelyuskin in his honor.

Who: Ermak Timofeevich, Cossack ataman in the service of the Russian Tsar. Ermak's last name is unknown. Possibly Tokmok.

When: 1581-1585

What opened: conquered and explored Siberia for the Russian state. To do this, he entered into a successful armed struggle with the Tatar khans in Siberia.

Ivan Kruzenshtern, officer Russian fleet, admiral

When: 1803-1806.

What opened: Made the first of the Russian navigators trip around the world together with Yuri Lisyansky on the sloops Nadezhda and Neva. Commanded "Hope"

Who: Yuri Lisyansky, Russian Navy officer, captain

When: 1803-1806.

What opened: He was the first Russian navigator to circumnavigate the world together with Ivan Kruzenshtern on the sloops Nadezhda and Neva. Commanded the Neva.

Who: Petr Semenov-Tyan-Shansky

When: 1856-57

What opened: The first of the Europeans explored the Tien Shan mountains.

He also later studied a number of areas in Central Asia. For research mountain system and services to science received from the authorities of the Russian Empire the honorary name Tien-Shansky, which he had the right to pass on by inheritance.

Who: Vitus Bering

When: 1727-29

What opened: The second (after Semyon Dezhnev) and the first of the scientific researchers reached North America, passing through the Bering Strait, thereby confirming its existence. Confirmed that North America and Eurasia are two different continents.

Who: Khabarov Yerofey, Cossack, fur trader

When: 1649-53

What opened: mastered part of Siberia for the Russians and Far East, explored the land near the Amur River.

Who: Mikhail Lazarev, Russian Navy officer.

When: 1820

What opened: Antarctica together with Thaddeus Bellingshausen on the frigates Vostok and Mirny.

Commanded "Peace". Before the expedition of Lazarev and Bellingshausen, nothing was known about the existence of this continent. Also, the Russian expedition finally dispelled the myth about the existence of the mythical "Southern Continent", which was marked on medieval European maps, and which navigators unsuccessfully searched for for four hundred years in a row.

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half 19th century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) geographer, statistician, botanist.

He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.

The Russian Geographical Society was associated with the activities of other Russian travelers- P.

A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayans and the Vitim Plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia.

He crossed Mongolia several times, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such "ascetics are needed like the sun." “Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society,” he added, “they excite, console and ennoble ...

Russian travelers of the 19th century (briefly)

If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond any price.

overseas Russian travels scientists in the second half of the 19th century.

become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping coastline, now the life, culture, customs of local peoples were studied. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put S. P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888).

He made his first travels in Canary Islands and across North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast).

The Russian scientist won the trust and love of the locals. Then he traveled through the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, and again returned to the Maclay Coast. The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers.

By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

§ The first Russian Marxist V.

G. Plekhanov
§Beginning of Lenin's revolutionary activity
§Beginning of the reign of Alexander I
§Start Patriotic War 1812
§End of the Patriotic War of 1812

The achievements of Russian scientists in the field of geographical research were of particular importance. Russian travelers visited places where no European had ever set foot before. In the second half 19th century. their efforts were focused on exploring the interior of Asia.

The beginning of expeditions into the depths of Asia was laid Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914) geographer, statistician, botanist. He made a number of trips to the mountains of Central Asia, to the Tien Shan. Having headed the Russian Geographical Society, he began to play a leading role in developing plans for new expeditions.

The Russian Geographical Society was associated with the activities of other Russian travelers- P. A. Kropotkin and N. M. Przhevalsky.

P. A. Kropotkin in 1864-1866 traveled through Northern Manchuria, the Sayans and the Vitim Plateau.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky (1839-1888) he made his first expedition along the Ussuri region, then his paths ran through the most inaccessible regions of Central Asia. He several times crossed Mongolia, Northern China, explored the Gobi Desert, Tien Shan, visited Tibet. He died en route, at the start of his last expedition. In connection with the news of his death, A.P. Chekhov wrote that such “ ascetics are needed like the sun». « Constituting the most poetic and cheerful element of society, he added, they excite, console and ennoble ... If the positive types created by literature constitute valuable educational material, then the same types given by life itself are beyond any price.».

overseas Russian travels scientists in the second half of the 19th century. become more targeted. If before they were mainly limited to describing and mapping the coastline, now they studied the life, culture, and customs of local peoples. This direction, the beginning of which in the XVIII century. put S. P. Krasheninnikov, it was continued Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay (1846-1888). He made his first travels to the Canary Islands and North Africa. In the early 70s, he visited a number of Pacific islands, studied the life of local peoples. For 16 months he lived among the Papuans on the northeastern coast of New Guinea (this place has since been called the Maclay Coast). The Russian scientist won the trust and love of the locals. Then he traveled to the Philippines, Indonesia, Malacca, again returned to " Maclay coast". The descriptions of life and customs, economy and culture of the peoples of Oceania, compiled by the scientist, were largely published only after his death.

World geographical science in those years largely relied on the achievements of Russian researchers. By the end of the XIX century. the era of geographical discoveries ended. And only the icy expanses of the Arctic and Antarctic still kept many of their secrets. The heroic epic of the latest geographical discoveries, in which Russian researchers took an active part, falls at the beginning of the 20th century.

The work of the famous French writer Jules Verne (1828-1905) - "The History of Great Journeys" - is devoted to the history of geographical discoveries from ancient times to the early forties of the XIX century.

The third book is "Travelers of the 19th century". This book includes descriptions of the travels of Krusenstern, Kotzebue, Litke, Dumont d'Urville, Bellingshausen, Parry, Franklin and other prominent explorers. In addition, Jules Verne covers the history of lesser known expeditions.

PART I

Chapter first. At the dawn of the age of discovery

I

The decrease in the number of geographical discoveries during the Napoleonic wars. - Zetzen's travels in Syria and Palestine. – Howran and travel around Dead Sea. - Decapolis. - Journey through Arabia. – Burckhardt in Syria. - Travels to Nubia along the banks of the Nile. - Pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. - The British in India. — Webb at the source of the Ganges. - Description of a trip to the Punjab. “Christy and Pottinger in Sindh. - Journey of the same explorers in Balochistan and Persia. – Elphinstone in Afghanistan. – Trip of Moorcroft and Hersey to Lake Manasarovar. — Hodgson at the source of the Ganges. - Persia according to the descriptions of Gardan, Hell. Dupre, Maurier, Macdonald Kinnear, Price and Knots. - Guldenshtedt and Klaproth in the Caucasus. Lewis and Clark in the Rocky Mountains. - Raffles in Sumatra and Java.

At the end of the 18th and at the beginning of the 19th centuries, the number of great geographical discoveries markedly decreased.

We know that the French Republic organized an expedition in search of La Pérouse and sent Captain Bodin on a voyage to the coast of Australia, with important results. This exhausted the manifestation of interest in geography, which, in the midst of raging passions and wars, the government could allow itself.

Later in Egypt, Bonaparte surrounds himself with a whole staff of eminent scientists and artists. It was then that materials were collected for a magnificent work, which for the first time gave a true, although incomplete idea of ​​\u200b\u200b ancient civilization in the Land of the Pharaohs. However, when Napoleon finally appeared in Bonaparte, the selfish ruler, subordinating everything to his disgusting passion for war, no longer wanted to hear about research, travel and discoveries. After all, they would take away money and people from him. And he himself spent both in such quantities that he could not afford such useless extravagance. Therefore, he ceded to the United States for only a few millions the last remnants of the French colonial possessions in America.

Fortunately, there were peoples in the world that were not subject to his iron hand. Although these countries waged an unceasing struggle with France, there were people in them who, at their own will, increased geographical knowledge, created archeology on a truly scientific foundation, and began the first linguistic and ethnographic studies.

In France, the learned geographer Maltbren, in an article published by him in 1817 in the first issue of the journal Nouvelles Annales des Voyages (New Annals of Travel), painstakingly and extremely accurately depicts the state of geographical science by the beginning of the 19th century and lists its further tasks. He especially dwells on the successes achieved in the field of navigation, astronomy and linguistics. Among the British, the East India Company not only does not hide its discoveries, as the Hudson's Bay Company did for fear of competition, but creates scientific societies, publishes travel journals and encourages travelers. Even war promotes science; we have already said that the French army was in Egypt collecting materials for an enormous scientific work. Soon the impulse of noble competition embraces all peoples.

At the beginning of the 19th century, one country came forward in first place in terms of the number of great geographical discoveries. This country is Germany. German explorers are so diligent, their will is so stubborn, and their instinct is so right, that subsequent travelers can only check and supplement their discoveries.

The first was Ulrich Jasper Seetzen. He was born in 1767 in East Frisia, graduated from the University of Göttingen, and published several works on statistics and the natural sciences, for which he had an innate inclination. These articles brought him to the attention of the government.

Seetzen's dream - as later Burckhardt's - was to travel to Central Africa. But first he wanted to explore Palestine and Syria, countries to which the "Palestinian Society", founded in London in 1805, later attracted general attention. Seetzen collected more letters of recommendation and in 1802 left for Constantinople.

Although there were many pilgrims and travelers to the Holy Land and Syria, there was an unusually vague information about these countries. Questions of physical geography have not been studied with sufficient completeness. The information collected was scarce, and some areas, such as Lebanon and the Dead Sea, had not yet been explored at all. Comparative geographical study of these countries, in fact, did not begin. It took the zealous work of the English "Palestinian Society" and the scientific experience of many travelers to lay its foundations. But Seetzen, who possessed versatile knowledge, proved to be well equipped to explore this country, which so far, no matter how much it was visited, remained in fact unknown.

Zetzen crossed all of Anatolia and arrived in Aleppo in May 1804. There he lived for almost a year, engaged in the practical study of the Arabic language, making extracts from the works of Eastern geographers and historians, and clarifying the astronomical position of Aleppo. In addition, he carried out natural history research, collected ancient manuscripts and translated many folk songs and legends, which are important for a close acquaintance with the life of the people.

In April 1805 Seetzen left Aleppo for Damascus. First, he had to cross the Khauran and Jolan districts, located southeast of this city. Before him, no traveler had yet visited these two provinces, which played a rather important role in the history of the Jews during the time of Roman domination and were then called Auranitis and Gaulonitis. Seetzen was the first to give us their geographical description.

The brave traveler also explored Lebanon and Baalbek. From Damascus he went south, reached Judea and explored eastern part Hermon, Jordan and the Dead Sea. Here once lived tribes well known in Jewish history - Ammonites, Moabites, Galadites, Batanei and others. The southern part of the country during the era of Roman rule was called Perea, and it was there that the famous Decapolis, that is, the "Union of Ten Cities", was located. In modern times, not a single traveler visited Perea. For Zetzen, this circumstance was the reason to start his research from there.

1

Open lesson for 8th grade. Education and science in the 19th century.

Russian pioneers and travelers.

At the very beginning of the 19th century, a system of higher, secondary and primary education was formed in Russia. The educational reform carried out in 1803 led to the creation of a gymnasium in every provincial town. In each county town of the county school. The Ministry of Public Education was created to manage educational institutions. The government paid great attention to the development of higher education.

1. Match the universities and the dates of their formation.

Dorpat 1802

Kazansky 1804

Kharkov 1804

Vilensky 1804

Petersburg 1819

Alexander (Tsarskoye Selo) Lyceum 1811-

In which representatives of the highest noble society (A.S. Pushkin) studied.

2. Fill in the table. Educational institutions under Nicholas 1.

Whom and what was taught.

Parish schools

representatives of the lower classes. God's law, literacy, arithmetic.

County schools

Children of merchants, artisans, philistines. Russian language arithmetic, geometry, history, geography.

Gymnasiums

Children of nobles, officials, merchants of the first guild. Studied exact and humanitarian subjects.

3. Indicate the publisher whose books contributed to the development of education in the 40s. 19th century?

A. Sytin I.D.

B. Smirdin A.F.

V. Soldatenkov K.T.

G. Pavlenkov F.F.

4.Fill in the table.

The improvement of the education system in many ways contributed to the development of domestic science.

Branch of science

opening

biology

Dvigubsky I.A.

The earth's surface and the creatures inhabiting it undergo fundamental changes over time under the influence of natural causes.

Dyadkovsky I.E.

Life is a continuous physical and chemical process.

Baer K.M. 1834

The universal law of the development of nature.

medicine

Pirogov N.I.1856

The founder of military field surgery First used anesthesia.

geology

N.I. Koksharov 1840

A geological map of European Russia was compiled.

Astronomy

Building powerful telescopes. Pulkovo observatory

mathematics

Lobachevsky N.I. 1826

Non-Euclidean geometry.

Petrov V.V. 1802

Developed a galvanic battery. An example of an electric light bulb.

Lenz E.Kh. 1833

Rule for the direction of the driving force of induction. A year later he invented the electric motor.

Jacobi B.S. 1840

Galvanoplasty is a method of applying metal to the desired surface using electricity. Letterpress machine for telegraph.1850

Schilling P.L.1832

Invented the electric telegraph.

Guess the crossword. Chemistry, science and production. Using the textbook on pages 105-106

1. In 1826-27, one of these researchers laid the foundation for powder metallurgy.

2. This researcher discovered the basic law of photochemistry.

3. 6. In the 30s of the 19th century, these brothers, serf mechanics of the Nizhny Tagil Metallurgical Plant, built the first steam railway.

4. In 1840, this scientist discovered the basic law of thermochemistry.

5. In 1817, this outstanding metallurgist developed four options for the technology for producing damask steel.

6. This researcher in the field of chemistry has developed a method for obtaining glucose.

7. One of these chemists created stable chemical dyes for the booming textile industry.

Distinctive features of the development of education and science in the first half of the 19th century were: an increase in the number of higher and secondary educational institutions and representatives of various segments of the country's population studying in them; growth in the number of scientists; the major successes achieved by Russian scientists in the development of national and world science achieved on this basis; strengthening the practical orientation of scientific research; strengthening links between science and industrial production

6. Russian discoverers and travelers.

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors, explorers and travelers in the 17-18 centuries, they enriched the Russians' understanding of the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time carried out soy old dream: her ships went to the oceans.

Work with text to insert missing words.

1. Kruzenshtern I.F. and Lisyansky Yu.F.

In 1803, at the direction of Alexander 1, an expedition was undertaken on the ships Nadezhda and Neva to explore the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. It was the first Russian expedition, which lasted three years. It was headed by Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern, the largest navigator and geographer of the 19th century.

During the voyage, more than a thousand kilometers of the coast of Sakhalin Island were mapped for the first time. Yu.F. Lisyansky discovered one of the islands of the Hawaiian archipelago, named after him. A lot of data was collected by the members of the expedition about the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. Islands of the Pacific and Arctic Oceans.

The results of the observations were presented in the report of the Academy of Sciences. Kruzenshtern I.F. was awarded the title of academician. His materials formed the basis of the "Atlas of the South Seas" published in the early 1920s. In 1845, Admiral I. F. Kruzenshtern became one of the founding members of the Russian Geographical Society.

Map work. Match the received information with the task.

2. Bellingshausen F.F. and Lazarev M.P.

One of the students and followers of Krusenstern was Fadey Fadeevich Bellingshausen. He was a member of the first Russian round-the-world expedition.

In 1819-1821, Bellingshausen was instructed to lead a new round-the-world expedition on the sloops Vostok and Mirny. The expedition plan was made by Kruzenshtern I.F. The main goal was "the acquisition of complete knowledge about our globe" and "the discovery of the possible proximity of the Antarctic Pole."

On January 16, 1820, the expedition approached the shores of Antarctica, unknown at that time, which Bellingshausen called "the ice continent". After stopping in Australia, Russian ships moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, where they discovered a group of islands called the Russian Islands.

For 751 days of navigation, Russian sailors covered about 50 thousand km. The most important geographical discoveries were made, valuable collections were brought. Observational data on the waters of the World Ocean and ice covers of a new continent for mankind.

Student's report. Put in the missing words.

3. Baranov A.A. and development of Russian America.

Alexander Alexandrovich Baranov can hardly be attributed to the discoverers or travelers in the strict sense of the word. But he was a man who made an invaluable contribution to the development of Russian America by our compatriots.

In search of new hunting areas, Baranov studied Kodiak Island and other territories in detail, searched for minerals, founded new Russian settlements and supplied them with everything necessary. Established an exchange with local residents. It was he who managed for the first time to truly secure vast territories on the Pacific coast of North America for Russia. Baranov's activities were extremely difficult and dangerous. The constant raids of the Indians cost the Russian settlers not only a lot of money, but also their lives. In 1802 alone, more than 200 settlers were killed while trying to establish a settlement on the island of Sitka.

Baranov's efforts were so successful that in 1799 he became the ruler of the Russian-American Company, and in 1803 he was appointed ruler of the Russian colonies in America. In 1804, Baranov founded the Novoarkhangelsk fortress on the island of Sitka, and then Fort Ross. In 1825 he undertook an expedition to Hawaiian Islands with a view to their accession to Russia. However, she did not bring good luck. In 1818 he received consent to leave America for his homeland. On the road, on the island of Java, Baranov died in 1819.

Map work. Match the information received with the task

4. Nevelskoy G.I. and E.V. Putyatin.

Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy became the largest explorer of the Russian Far East in the middle of the 19th century.

In two expeditions (1848-1849 and 1850-1855) he managed to bypass Sakhalin from the north, discover a number of new, previously unknown territories and enter the lower reaches of the Amur. Here in 1850 he founded the Nikolaev post (Nikolaevsk-on-Amur). Nevelsky's travels were of great importance: for the first time it was proved that Sakhalin was not at all connected to the mainland. And the Tatar Strait is also an island - it is a strait, and not a bay, as it was thought.

Efimy Vasilyevich Putyatin in 1822-1825 traveled around the world and left a description of what he saw to posterity. In 1852-1855. during the expedition led by him on the frigate "Pallada" the islands of Rimsky-Korsakov were discovered. Putyatin became the first Russian who managed to visit Japan, which was closed to Europeans, and even signed an agreement there in 1855.

The result of the expeditions of Nevelsky and Putyatin, in addition to purely scientific ones, was the consolidation of the Primorsky region in the Far East for Russia.

The scientific information collected by Russian travelers was so extensive and significant that it was necessary to create special institutions for their generalization and use.

The most important of them was the Russian Geographical Society, opened in 1845. It has become the center of geographical knowledge in Russia. The organization of scientific expeditions became regular. Carrying out surveys of the population of Russia and neighboring countries. Publication of geographical and statistical collections. For the development of economic and geographical studies of Siberia, the Far East, the Caucasus, Transcaucasia and Central Asia in 1851, the Caucasian and Siberian departments of the Russian Geographical Society were created.

8. Homework paragraphs 15. 16.