In the Nahuatl language, the native language of the Aztecs, the word "Aztec" literally means "someone from Aztlan", a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term for peoples connected by trade, customs, religion and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt (Alexander von Humboldt) and borrowed by Mexican scholars of the 19th century as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian population.

The Aztecs themselves called themselves "mexica", or "tenochka" and "tlaltelolca" - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “mexica” (ast. mexica, from which, in fact, the word “Mexico” comes from), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Meshitli (Mexitli, Mextli) , a type of seaweed native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator from the Nahuatl language, Miguel León-Portilla (Spanish: Miguel León-Portilla), claims that this word means "middle of the moon" - from the words metztli (Mekstli, Metztli, Meshtli, Metchtli - Moon) and xictli (middle) . The self-name "tenochka" may come from the name of Tenoch - another legendary leader.

The Aztec tribe came to the Valley of Mexico from the north - most likely from [specify which] US states. At that time, the entire territory of the valley was divided among the local tribes and, of course, none of them wanted to share the land with the aliens. After consulting, the local leaders decided to give the aliens desert island on Lake Texcoco. There were many snakes on the island, so locals it was expected that the aliens on the island would have a hard time.

Arriving on the island, the Aztecs saw that many snakes lived on it, and they were very happy about this, since the snakes were their food. As a good sign, the Aztecs saw an eagle holding a snake in its claws.

Already in 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, arose on the island.

Legends and traditions

The Aztec culture is associated with the cultural complex known as the Nahua because of the common language.

According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco from the north. The location of these valleys and lakes is known for certain - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.

Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlan, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlaks (Ast. nahuatlaca, "Nahuatl speakers", from the word "tlaca", meaning "man"). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli (ast. Huitzilopochtli), which means “hummingbird of the left side”, “left-handed hummingbird”. There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that it was in such a place that new house. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

So, in 1256, the Aztecs stopped on a rock washed by a spring and surrounded by aueuete thickets. It was Chapultepec, then - the forest. Lake Texcoco stretched out before them.

By the arrival of the Aztecs, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided among coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme power of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (the city of Tenocha) was founded in 1325. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, the local population considered them the most uncivilized group, but the Aztecs decided to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples, mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they might confuse with more ancient civilization Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of all culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identify the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the older Teotihuacans.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, describing four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Nahui-Ollin (ast. Nahui-Ollin), the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means "all in wounds" (in Russian it is usually translated "all in buboes"; the smallest and humblest god, who suffered from pain caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (lit. "place of transformation into a god"), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca (ast. Tezcatlipoca) and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, therefore he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

The Aztec empire, like most European empires, was ethnically very diverse; it was more of a unified system of tribute collection than a unified system of government. In this context, Arnold Toynbee draws an analogy with the Assyrian Empire.

Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was conducted even with enemy cities. The only people who defeated the Aztecs - Purépecha (Astan. Purépecha) - was the main manufacturer of copper axes.

The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica there were no draft animals and wheeled Vehicle and roads were built for walking. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even visit the restroom every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers (Painani) constantly cruised along these paths, keeping the Aztecs up to date with the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased from 10 to 15 million people.

The most important official in the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Wei Tlatoani (Ast. Huey Tlahtoani) translates roughly as “Great Orator”: Tlatoke (Ast. tlatoque, “speakers”) were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The power of the tlatoani grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of the reign of Auitzotl, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial one, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.
From 1397 to 1487 the empire was headed by Tlacaelel (Tlahcaélel from Nahuatl - "brave heart"). He could become a tlatoani (ast. tlahtoani), but chose to remain in the shade of the jaguar mat. Tlacaelel was the nephew of the tlatoani Itzcoatl (ast. Itzcoatl) and the brother of Chimalpopoca (ast. Chimalpopoca) and Motekusoma Ilhuicamina (ast. Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina) and bore the title "Cihuacoatl" (Cihuacoatl; ast. Cihuacóatl, in honor of the goddess Chihuacoatl, the equivalent of an adviser ); as written in the Ramirez manuscript, "what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as soon as possible." It was a tough reformer; he created a new government structure, ordered the burning of most of the Aztec books, claiming that they were all false, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed religion by placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (possibly exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of "flower wars" and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continues to move across the sky. These establishments served for the speedy fall of the Aztec empire during the Conquista and the campaign of Cortes.

By the time of the Conquista, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. Separate colonies existed on the lands of modern Guatemala, Peru, Colombia and Venezuela. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Aztec society
Class structure

Traditionally, society was divided into two social strata, or classes: maseualli (ast. macehualli, people), or peasantry, and pilli (ast. pilli), or nobility. Originally, nobility status was not hereditary, although pilli sons had better access to resources and training, making it easier for them to become pilli. Over time, social status began to be inherited. Similarly, the Aztec warriors became pilli through their martial accomplishments. Only those who took captives in war could become permanent warriors; and over time, military glory and loot in the war made them pills. As soon as the Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tequiua (Ast. tequiua), and he could receive the rank of Eagle or Jaguar; later he could receive the rank of tlacateccatl (ast. tlacateccatl) or tlacochcalcatl (ast. tlacochcalcatl). To become a tlatoani, one had to capture at least 17 prisoners. When a youth came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first captive; sometimes two or three young men united for this, then they were called iyak (ast. iyac). If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became maseualli (ast. macehualli); it was considered a shame to be a warrior with long hair, meaning the absence of prisoners; however, there were those who preferred to be maseualli.

Rich military booty led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society: the post (Ast. pochtecatl), or merchants. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; The postmen were also good scouts. The warriors despised them, but one way or another they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

In the later years of the empire, the concept of maseualli changed. Eduardo Noguera calculated that only 20% of the population was engaged in agriculture and food production. The farming system, called chinampa (ast. chinampa), was very efficient, it could provide food for about 190,000 inhabitants. Also, a significant amount of food was obtained in the form of tribute and through trade. The Aztecs were not only conquerors, but also skilled artisans and enterprising merchants. Later, most of the Maceualli devoted themselves to the arts and crafts, and their work was an important source of income for the city.

Excavations of some Aztec cities show that most luxury goods were produced in Tenochtitlan. More research is needed to establish if this is true for other areas; but if trade was as important to the Aztec economy as it appears, this may explain the rise of the pochetek as an influential class.

Slaves, or "tlacothin", also constituted an important class, distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies and had much in common with the slavery of classical antiquity. First, slavery was personal, not hereditary, the slave's children were free. A slave could have personal property and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children by their masters, or were married to their masters.

Usually, at the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

Another very striking way of freeing a slave was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra (Spanish: Manuel Orozco y Berra): if in the bazaar a slave could avoid the close supervision of the owner, run out of the walls of the market and step on human excrement, he could present his case to the judges, who set him free. The ex-slave was then washed, given him or her new clothes (so that he or she would not wear clothes that belonged to the former master), and declared free. And since, in complete contrast to the European colonial order, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave.

Orozco y Berra also writes that a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient. (Naughty was defined as laziness, escape attempts, and bad behavior.) Disobedient slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. The shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their device made it difficult to escape in the crowd or in narrow passages.

When buying a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times that slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold as a sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if a chained slave sought representation in royal palace or temple, he got freedom.

Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unfortunate players and old "auini" (ast. ahuini) - courtesans or prostitutes.

Motolinía writes that some captives, future victims of sacrifice, were treated like slaves according to all the rules of Aztec slavery before their sacrifice; but it is unclear how they were prevented from escaping. (There is a version that the role of the victim for the loser was considered honorable; however, remember the frescoes depicting the humiliation of captives - and doubt).

Entertainment and games

Although it was possible to drink "pulque" (pulque), a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before reaching the age of sixty; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was "tlachtli" (ast. tlachtli), the Aztec variant of the ancient Mesoamerican game "ulama". This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "olli" (ast. olli), whence comes the Spanish "ule" (Spanish hule), meaning rubber.

According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and the game was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical damage to yourself. The participant of the game, who got the ball into the ring, was sacrificed.

Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips; the object of the game was to pass the ball through the stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take the blankets of the public, so the victory was accompanied by running around, screaming and laughing. People were betting on the outcome of the game. The poor could bet their food, the pilli could bet their wealth, the “tecutli” (Ast. tecutli, owners) could bet their concubines or even cities, and those who had nothing bet their freedom and risk becoming slaves.

The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or captain of the winning team (however, according to other sources, the captain and players of the losing team).

The "game" of the ball was originally a religious ritual, in which every detail was filled with symbolism. For example, the ball personified the heavenly body, the moon or the sun, depending on the type of throw. The participants threw the ball to each other, and its arc trajectory was associated with the trajectory of the heavenly bodies. The sacrifice of the participant who scored the "goal" was a great honor both for himself and for his entire family. Participants who did not show enough dexterity during the game remained to live, but along with their families fell to the lowest social stratum of society.

Education

Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents. There was an oral tradition (a set of wise instructions), called huehuetlatolli (ast. huehuetlatolli) (“proverbs of the old people”), which conveyed the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs. There were lines and sayings for every occasion; there were words for greeting the birth of a child and words for farewell at death. Fathers reminded their daughters to be very attractive, but not to use make-up, so as not to look like ahuiani (ast. ahuiani). Mothers advised their daughters to support their husband, even if he turned out to be a humble peasant. Boys were taught to be humble, obedient and hardworking.

Boys went to school from the age of 15. There were two types of educational institutions. In tepochcalli (ast. tepochcalli) they taught history, religion, military art, as well as trade or craft (peasant or artisan). The Calmecac (Ast. calmecac), where the sons of pilli mostly went, focused on the training of leaders (tlaktok), priests, scholars/teachers (Ast. tlatinimi) and scribes (Ast. tlacuilo). They were trained in rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in tepochcalli, martial arts.

The Aztec teachers offered a Spartan regime of training - cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bloodletting with spikes, and endurance tests - with the goal of molding a courageous people.

Information as to whether the school of the calmecac was only for the sons and daughters of the pilli is contradictory; some sources say they could choose where they would study. It is possible that the common people preferred tepochcalli, as it was easier for a warrior to rise using his martial abilities; the education of a priest or tlakuilo (ast. tlacuilo) did not give rapid career growth.

Girls were taught home crafts and raising children, they were not taught to write and read.

There were two main opportunities for gifted children: some were sent to the song and dance house, and others to the ball game house. Both occupations had a high status.

Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinampas, on Lake Texcoco; cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The staple foods of the Aztecs were maize (corn), beans and gourds. The chinampas were very efficient and produced up to seven crops a year, based on current chinampa crops it was estimated that 1 hectare of chinampa could feed 20 people, and 9,000 hectares of chinampa would feed 180,000 people.

Much has been said about the lack of protein in the Aztec diet as an argument in support of the theory of their existence of cannibalism, but these statements are unproven: the combination of maize and beans provides the necessary norm of the most important amino acids, which eliminates the problem of protein deficiency. The Aztecs cultivated many varieties of corn with a wide range of amino acids; in addition, they grew amaranth, the grains of which contain a lot of protein. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocils, small shrimp that abound in Lake Texcoco; they collected flavoprotein-rich spirulina algae, which was used in various types of pastries; they also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae. Insects contain more protein than meat and are still a delicacy in parts of Mexico to this day. The Aztecs kept pets like turkey (ast. guajolote) and itzcuintli (ast. itzcuintli - a breed of meat dogs), although usually the meat of these animals was intended for special occasions - situations of expressing gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boars, ducks ...

Montenallo's research showed that the average life expectancy of Mesoamericans was 37 years (± 3 years).

The Aztecs made extensive use of the agave (maguey); food, sugar, drinks (pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothes were obtained from it. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Cocoa beans were used as money. Subordinate cities paid an annual tribute in the form of luxury items (such as feathers and ornate costumes).

After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants.

sacrifices

in Mesoamerica and South America during the heyday of the Aztec state, sacrifices were widespread; however, the Aztecs practiced them on a special scale, sacrificing people on each of the 18 holidays of their sacred calendar.

It should be noted that it was not always a man who was sacrificed; offerings of animals were frequent, for which the Aztecs bred a special breed of llamas. They also sacrificed things: they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced, people inflicted wounds on themselves during special ceremonies, performing ritual bloodletting; wore special spikes that constantly injure the body. Blood was central to the cultures of Mesoamerica. Many myths are known in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that humans can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human. Usually the skin of the victim was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the upper platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim's stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim's heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it. Sacrifice was considered (and usually was) voluntary, but not in the case of prisoners; if faith was not enough, drugs could be used. Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways: the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and put on display in tzompantli (ast. tzompantli), and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as a gift to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscle and skin from some of the remains discovered in a large temple complex.

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned. It's hard to keep track here. The Aztec chronicles describe how about 84,400 captives were sacrificed in four days to build the main temple. However, it is not clear how an urban population of 120,000 was able to capture, contain and get rid of such a number of captives, especially considering that Ahuizotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equals 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of victims could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for military propaganda purposes.

Other figures are taken from Bernal Díaz del Castillo (Spanish: Bernal Díaz del Castillo), a Spanish soldier who wrote his accounts for 50 years after the conquest. In describing the tzompantli, the place with the skulls of the victims, he counts about 100,000 skulls. However, to accommodate so many skulls, the tzompantli would have to be several kilometers long instead of the described 30 meters. Modern reconstructions count between 600 and 1200 skulls. Similarly, Díaz claimed that Tlaltelolco's zompantli, as important as that of Tenochtitlan, contained 60,000 skulls. According to the book by William Arens, 300 skulls were found during the excavations.

Bernardino de Sahagún, Juan Bautista de Pomar and Motolinía (Spanish: Bernardino de Sahagún, Juan Bautista de Pomar, Motolinía) say that the Aztecs had 18 big holidays a year. Motolinia and Pomar clearly state that sacrifices were made only on these holidays. Each god required a certain type of sacrifice: young girls were drowned for Xilonen (ast. Xilonen), sickly boys were sacrificed to Tlaloc (ast. Tlaloc), Nahuatl-speaking captives were sacrificed by Huitzilopochtli (ast. Huitzilopochtli), and an Aztec volunteer was sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca (ast. Tezcatlipoca). ).

Not all sacrifices were made at the Main Temple (Spanish: Templo Mayor); some took place on Cerro del Peñón, an island in Lake Texcoco. According to an Aztec source, 34 captives were sacrificed in a gladiator fight to the god Xipe Totec (ast. Xipe Totec) in the month of Tlacashipeualistli. A large number were donated to Huitzilopochtli in the month of Panquetzaliztli. This should have been between 300 and 600 victims per year, although Marvin Harris raises this figure by a factor of 20, considering that sacrifices were made in all parts (calpulli, ast. calpulli) of the city. There is no general agreement on the actual numbers.

The Aztecs waged the so-called "flower wars" (Spanish: guerras floridas) - special raids to capture captives to perform sacrifices, which they call nextlaualli (Ast. nextlaualli), - it was a kind of "debt payment to the gods" so that the sun could shine for next 52 year cycle. The human soul-heart and soul-blood are necessary so that the world does not collapse - this idea underlay the practice of capturing people in subordinate lands, and the population was ordered to meet warriors with flowers in their hands (one of the reasons that gave the name "flower wars").

It is not known whether the Aztecs performed sacrifices before they came to the Anahuac Valley, or whether they absorbed this custom in the same way that they absorbed many other customs and cultures. Initially, the sacrifices were dedicated to Xipe-Totec, a deity of northern Mesoamerica. The Aztec chronicles state that human sacrifice began during the reign of Tizoc (Ast. Tizoc). During the reign of Tlacaelel, human sacrifice became an integral part of the Aztec culture, not only for religious, but also for political reasons.

When Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan, he forbade human sacrifice, so the Spaniards did not see sacrifices in the city.

No chronicle images of human sacrifices from the time immediately before the arrival of Cortes have survived, all known images were drawn a few years after the start of the Conquest, although the destruction of the Aztec chronicles by the Spaniards may be the reason for this. However, there are similar images in stone and wall paintings and ritual objects used in sacrificial rites, although they, like archaeological evidence, do not confirm such a number of sacrifices as 80 or 100 thousand.

There are great discrepancies between what has been written on this subject and what is known for certain.

Cannibalism
It is common knowledge that the Aztecs performed human sacrifices; however, there is no agreement on the issue of cannibalism and its extent. Marvin Harris, for example, states that the meat of the victims was part of the diet of the upper classes as a reward, because the Aztec diet included little protein. According to him, the captives were "walking meat". On the other hand, William Ahrens doubts the existence of cannibalism among the Aztecs at all.

Despite the agreement of many historians on the existence of ritual cannibalism associated with human sacrifice, most scholars do not support Harris' thesis that human meat was a significant part of the Aztec diet.

There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquista, none of which speak of extensive ritual cannibalism. The Ramirez Chronicle ambiguously links cannibalism to ritual sacrifice. The Codex Magliabechiano contains two drawings that unambiguously depict human meat eaten: in the ritual of worshiping the lord of the underworld, Mictlantecuhtli, and in the funeral rite, where a human hand lies along with other food. There, in the commentary in Spanish, it is said that the Indians were very fond of the pork brought by the Spaniards, as it reminded them of human meat in taste.

Characteristic reports of Aztec cannibalism:
Cortes writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards offered to surrender to the Aztecs, since they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs suggested that the Spaniards attack, then to be taken prisoner and eaten.
In the books of Bernardino de Sahagún there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened the Aztec merchants.
In the chronicle of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the palms of the victim was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, the meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced by a turkey.
In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as a gift to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, as it was believed that there was no value in it; it was replaced with a turkey or simply thrown away.

Recent archaeological finds (2005) in the cellars of Aztec temples show incisions signifying the removal of muscles. However, not all bodies have such cuts.

Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in peacetime. Despite the upheavals of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the time of the Conquista have come down to us. For several dozen poetic texts, even the names of the authors are known, for example, Nezahualcoyotl (ast. Netzahualcóyotl) and Cuacuatzin (ast. Cuacuatzin). Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator from Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions and thoughts of the Aztecs, regardless of the "official" worldview.
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In the basement of the Great Temple (Spanish Templo Mayor) was the "House of Eagles" (see also "House of Jaguars"), where in peacetime the Aztec military leaders could drink foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry. The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments (ast. teponaztli). One of the most common themes (among surviving texts) of poetry is "is life a reality or a dream?" and the opportunity to meet the Creator.

The largest collection of poems was collected by Juan Bautista de Pomar. This collection was later translated into Spanish by the teacher Leon-Portilla. Juan Bautista de Pomar was the great-grandson of Nezahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was brought up as a Christian, and wrote down his grandfather's poems in Latin characters.

The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form would hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and performances about the gods.

Scene of ritual cannibalism from the Codex Magliabechiano, mid-16th century

And by Mexican scientists of the 19th century as a means to distinguish contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian population.

The Aztecs themselves called themselves "meshika", or "tenochka" and "tlaltelolka" - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “meshika” (ast. mēxihcah, from which the word “Mexico” comes), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Meshitli (Mexitli, Mextli), a type of algae, native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator from the Nahuatl language, Miguel Leon-Portilla (Spanish. Miguel Leon-Portilla), claims that this word means "middle of the moon" - from the words metztli (Mextli, Metzli , Meshtli , Metchli - Luna) and xictli(middle). The self-name "tenochki" may come from the name of Tenoch - another legendary ruler.

Story

The Aztec tribe came to the Mexico Valley from the north - from lands now owned by the United States. At that time, the entire territory of the valley was divided between local tribes, and, naturally, none of them wanted to share the land with strangers. After consulting, the local leaders decided [ ] to give the aliens an uninhabited island on Lake Texcoco. There were many snakes on the island, so the locals expected that foreigners on the island would have a hard time.

Arriving on the island, the Aztecs rejoiced, because the snakes were their food. As a good sign, the Aztecs saw an eagle holding a snake in its paws.

Although cities under Aztec rule were subject to heavy tribute, excavations show a steady increase in the wealth of commoners after the subjugation of these cities. Trade was conducted even with enemy cities. The only people who defeated the Aztecs - purépecha (ast. purépecha) - was the main manufacturer of copper axes.

The main administrative contribution of the Aztecs was the system of communications between the conquered cities. There were no draft animals or wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, and roads were built for walking. Usually the construction of roads was part of the tribute. The roads were constantly monitored so that even women could travel alone; travelers could rest, eat and even recover in special well-arranged places located every 10-15 kilometers. Also, messengers constantly cruised along these paths ( pinani), keeping the Aztecs up to date with the latest events.

The creation of the Aztec empire led to one of the largest population explosions: the population of Mesoamerica increased [ When?] from 10 to 15 million people [ ] .

The most important official in the government of Tenochtitlan is commonly referred to by Europeans as the Aztec emperor. From the Nahuatl language, the title of Emperor Way Tlatoani (ast. Huey Tlahtoani) translates roughly as "Great Orator": tlatoke(ast. tlatoque, "speakers") were the aristocracy, the highest class of society. The power of the tlatoani grew with the rise of Tenochtitlan. By the time of the reign of Auitzotl, the title "tlatoani" can already be considered an analogue of the imperial one, but, as in the Holy Roman Empire, it was not inherited.

In the middle of the 15th century, Tlacaelel played an important role in the empire ( Tlahcaelel from Nahuatl - "brave heart"). He could become tlatoani(ast. tlahtoani), but chose to stay in the shade of the jaguar mat. Tlacaelel was a nephew tlatoani Itzcoatl (ast. Itzcoatl) and brother of Chimalpopoca (ast. Chimalpopoca) and Motekusoma Ilhuicamina (ast. Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina) and bore the title " Siuacoatl"(Chihuacoatl; ast. Cihuacóatl, in honor of the goddess Chihuacoatl, the equivalent of an adviser); as written in the Ramirez manuscript, "what Tlacaelel ordered was carried out as soon as possible." It was a tough reformer; he created a new government structure for the country, ordered most of the Aztec books to be burned, claiming they were all false, and rewrote the history of the Aztecs. In addition, Tlacaelel reformed the religion by placing the tribal god Huitzilopochtli on the same level as the ancient gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca, and Quetzalcoatl. His exploits include (possibly exaggerating) the introduction of the custom of "flower wars" and the establishment of constant human sacrifices so that the Sun continues to move across the sky. These establishments served for the speedy fall of the Aztec empire during the Conquista and the campaign of Cortes.

By the time of the Conquista, the Aztec state occupied the territory from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean, from the mouths of the Balsas and Panukodo rivers to the Mayan lands. On the other hand, the city-state of Tlaxcala in the north of the Pueblo Valley did not submit to the Aztecs.

Aztec society

Class structure

Traditionally, society was divided into different social strata, or classes, including: maseually(ast. macehualli, people), or the peasantry, and pilly(ast. pilli), or know [ ] . Initially, the status of the nobility was not inherited, even among the sons pilly had better access to resources and training, so it was easier for them to become pilly. Over time, social status began to be inherited. In a similar way, the Aztec warriors became pilly thanks to his military achievements. Only those who took captives in war could become permanent warriors; and over time, military glory and loot in the war made them pills. As soon as an Aztec warrior captured four or five captives, he was called tekiua(ast. tequiua), and he could get the rank of Eagle or Jaguar; later he could get a rank tlacateccatl(ast. tlacateccatl) or tlacochalcatl(ast. tlacochcalcatl). To become tlatoani, it was necessary to capture at least 17 prisoners [ ] . When a youth came of age, he did not cut his hair until he captured his first captive; sometimes two or three young men united for this, then they were called yak(ast. iyac). If after a certain time - usually three battles - they could not take a prisoner, they became maseually(ast. macehualli); it was considered a shame to be a warrior with long hair, meaning the absence of prisoners; however, there were those who preferred to be maseualli.

Rich military booty led to the emergence of a third class that was not part of the traditional Aztec society: postage(ast. pochtecatl), or merchants. Their activities were not exclusively commercial; The postmen were also good scouts. The warriors despised them, but one way or another they gave them the loot in exchange for blankets, feathers, slaves and other goods.

In the later years of the empire, the concept maseually has changed. Eduardo Noguera calculated that only 20% of the population was engaged in agriculture and food production. The business system called chinampa(ast. chinampa), was very effective, it could provide food for about 190,000 inhabitants [ ] . Also, a significant amount of food was obtained in the form of tribute and through trade. The Aztecs were not only conquerors, but also skilled artisans and enterprising merchants. Later, most of the Maceualli devoted themselves to the arts and crafts, and their work was an important source of income for the city.

Excavations of some Aztec cities show that most luxury goods were produced in Tenochtitlan. More research is needed to establish if this is true for other areas; but if trade was as important to the Aztec economy as it seems, this may explain the rise postage as an influential class.

Slavery

Slaves, or "tlacothin", also constituted an important class, distinct from prisoners of war. This slavery was also very different from what was observed in the European colonies and had much in common with the slavery of classical antiquity. First, slavery was personal, the slave's children were free. A slave could have personal property and even his own slaves. Slaves could buy their freedom, and slaves could be freed if they were able to prove that they had been mistreated, or had children by their masters, or were married to their masters.

Usually, at the death of the owner, those slaves whose work was highly valued were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of the inheritance.

Another very striking way of freeing a slave was described by Manuel Orozco y Berra (Spanish. Manuel Orozco and Berra): if in the bazaar a slave could avoid the close supervision of the owner, run out of the walls of the market and step on human excrement, he could present his case to the judges, who freed him. The former slave was then washed, given new clothes (so that he would not wear clothes that belonged to the former master), and declared free. And since, in complete contrast to the European colonial order, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave.

Orozco y Berra also writes that a slave could not be sold without his consent, unless the authorities classified the slave as disobedient: disobedience was defined as laziness, escape attempts, and bad behavior. Disobedient slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. The shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their device made it difficult to escape in the crowd or in narrow passages.

When buying a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times that slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold as a sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if a chained slave sought representation in the royal palace or temple, he received freedom.

Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. A father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared his son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. This was usually the lot of unfortunate players and old "auini" (ast. ahuini) - courtesans or prostitutes.

Entertainment and games

Although it was possible to drink "pulque" (pulque), a fermented drink with a low alcohol content, the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk until they reached old age; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was "tlachtli" (ast. tlachtli), the Aztec variant of the ancient Mesoamerican "ulama" game. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "olli" (ast. olli), where does the Spanish "ule" come from (Spanish. hule), meaning rubber.

Aztec cities usually had two special complexes for this game. Players could hit the ball with their hips; the object of the game was to pass the ball through the stone ring. The lucky player who managed to do this was given the right to take the blankets of the public, so the victory was accompanied by running around, screaming and laughing. People were betting on the outcome of the game. The poor could bet their food, the pilli could bet their wealth, "tekutli" (ast. tecutli, owners) could stake their concubines or even cities, and those who had nothing staked their freedom and risked becoming slaves.

Education and science

Education

Usually the children were taught by their parents. From the age of five, some boys attended school, where they were taught to write and count. All schoolchildren wore the same hairstyle: a pigtail on one side. On the other hand, the hair was shaved bald. There was an oral tradition (a set of wise instructions) called uehuetlatolli(ast. huehuetlatolli) (“sayings of the old men”), where the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs were described. There were special sayings for every occasion: for greetings, wishes at the birth of a child, words of farewell at death. Fathers reminded their daughters to be attractive, but not to use excessive makeup, so as not to look like auiani(ast. ahuiani). Mothers advised their daughters to support their husband, even if he turned out to be a humble peasant. Boys were taught to be humble, obedient and hardworking.

There were two types of educational institutions: in schools called " tepochcalli"(ast. tepochcalli), taught history, religion, military art, as well as trade or craft (peasant or artisan); in schools " calmecac"(ast. calmecac), where the sons mostly went pilly, focused on training leaders (" tlaktok”), priests, scientists and teachers “tlatini” (ast. tlatinimi) and scribes “tlakuilo” (ast. tlacuilo). They were trained in rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in " tepochcalli", martial arts.

It is not entirely clear whether the schools were intended " calmecac» exclusively for offspring « pilly” or not: so, according to some sources, young people had the opportunity to choose exactly where to study. It is possible that ordinary people preferred " tepochcalli", since it was easier for a commoner to rise using their martial abilities; the path of a priest, or tlaquilo"(ast. tlacuilo) could not provide the young man with equally rapid growth in society.

There were two main opportunities for gifted children: some were sent to the song and dance house, and others to the ball game house. Both occupations had a high status.

Medicine

Almost all chroniclers of the 16th century (Hernan Cortez, Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Diego Duran, Tesosomok, Ixtlilxochitl, Torquemada, Motolinia, Mendieta, Acosta, Martin de la Cruz, Sahagun) briefly mentioned the healing and medicinal plants of Mesoamerica. It should be noted that Bernardino de Sahagun approached this issue with particular enthusiasm, describing the plants themselves, giving their local names, and in some cases the place of growth. In his General History of the Affairs of New Spain, Sahagún himself gave descriptions of 123 medicinal herbs, while 266 plants are mentioned in the texts of his informants.

Sahagun's data differs from those collected earlier by the baptized Aztec Martin de la Cruz (), who wrote an illustrated manuscript in Nahuatl, translated into Latin by Juan Badiano under the title "Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis" (or " Code de la Cruz Badiano”) on 63 sheets. Only 15 of the latter's plants match those of Sahagun, and 29 of the plants match those of the Indian informants. In total, in the codex (books X and XI), 251 medicinal plants are described in special sections on herbs and 185 color drawings are given. Today, many of them have been studied and introduced into world medical practice. However, most of them remain unknown to modern science.

Religion and mythology

Legends and traditions

The Aztec culture is associated with the cultural complex known as the Nahua because of the common language.

According to legend, the various groups that would become the Aztecs came to the Anahuac Valley around Lake Texcoco from the north. The location of these valleys and the lake are known for certain - this is the heart of modern Mexico City, but it is not known for certain where the Aztec people come from.

Legend has it that the ancestors of the Aztecs came from the north, from a place called Aztlán, and belonged to the last of the seven Nahuatlacs(ast. nahuatlaca, “Nahuatl speakers”, from the word “tlaca”, meaning “man”). According to legend, the Aztecs were led by the god Huitzilopochtli (ast. Huitzilopochtli), which means "hummingbird of the south." There is a well-known legend about an eagle sitting on a cactus on an island in the middle of a lake and eating a snake - an image from a prophecy that said that it was in such a place that a new house should be founded. This scene - an eagle eating a snake - is depicted on the Mexican flag.

By the arrival of the Aztecs, the lands around Lake Texcoco had long been divided among coastal city-states. Recognizing the supreme power of the ruler of the city of Azcapotzalco, the Aztecs settled on two small islands and built Tlatelolco (Tlaltelolco). Tenochtitlan (the city of Tenocha) was founded in the city. Over time, it became a large artificial island, now this place is the center of Mexico City.

According to legend, when the Aztecs arrived in the Anahuac Valley, they were considered the most uncivilized group by the local population, but the Aztecs chose to learn; and they took all the knowledge they could from other peoples, mostly from the ancient Toltecs (whom they might confuse with the older civilization of Teotihuacan). For the Aztecs, the Toltecs were the creators of all culture, the word "Toltecayotl" was synonymous with culture. Aztec legends identified the Toltecs and the cult of Quetzalcoatl with the mythical city of Tollan (modern Tula, Hidalgo, Mexico), which they also identified with the older Teotihuacans.

The Aztecs adopted and combined some traditions with their own; among them is the myth of the creation of the world, describing four great eras, each of which ended in a universal catastrophe. Our era - Naui-Ollin, the fifth era, the fifth sun or the fifth creation - escaped destruction thanks to the self-sacrifice of the god Nanahuatl, which means "all in wounds" (in Russian it is usually translated "all in buboes"; the smallest and most humble god who suffered from the pains caused by a serious illness; he turned into the Sun). This myth is associated with the ancient city of Teotihuacan (lit. "place of transformation into a god"), which was already abandoned and abandoned at the time when the Aztecs came to the valley of modern Mexico City.

Another myth describes the Earth as the creation of two twin gods - Tezcatlipoca (ast. Tezcatlipoca) and Quetzalcoatl. Tezcatlipoca lost his foot during the creation of the world, therefore he is depicted without a foot and with an exposed bone. In some varieties of the cult, Quetzalcoatl is also called the white Tezcatlipoca.

sacrifices

It should be noted that it was not always a man who was sacrificed; animal offerings were frequent. They also sacrificed things: they were broken in honor of the gods. The cult of Quetzalcoatl required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds. Self-sacrifice was also practiced, people inflicted wounds on themselves during special ceremonies, performing ritual bloodletting; wore special spikes that constantly injure the body. Blood was central to the cultures of Mesoamerica. Many myths are known in which the Nahua gods sacrifice their blood to help humanity. In the myth of the Fifth Sun, the gods sacrifice themselves so that humans can live. (All sacrifices are to maintain the energy of the sun, which, according to the Aztecs, gives them life)

All this prepared people for the highest sacrifice - human. Usually the skin of the victim was painted with blue chalk (the color of the sacrifice); then the victim was brought to the upper platform of a huge pyramid. Here the victim was laid on a stone slab, the victim's stomach was cut with a ritual knife (it is difficult to open the chest with an obsidian knife), after which the victim's heart was taken out and raised up to the Sun. The heart was placed in a special stone vessel - kuauchikalli or chak-mool, and the body was thrown onto the stairs, from where the priests dragged it. Sacrifice was considered (and usually was) voluntary, but not in the case of prisoners; if faith was not enough, drugs could be used [ ] . Then the body parts were disposed of in various ways: the entrails were fed to animals, the skull was polished and paraded in zompantli(ast. tzompantli), and the rest was either burned or cut into small pieces and offered as a gift to important people. Recent (2005) archaeological evidence indicates the removal of muscles and skin from some of the remains found in a large temple complex [ ] .

There were other types of human sacrifice, including torture. The victim was shot with arrows, burned or drowned [ ] . Aztec chronicles describe [ ], as for the construction of the main temple, about 20,000 captives were sacrificed in four days. However, it is not clear how an urban population of 120,000 was able to capture, contain and get rid of such a number of captives, especially considering that Ahuizotl sacrificed them with his own hands. This equals 17 sacrifices per minute for four days. Some scholars believe that the number of victims could not have exceeded 3,000 and that the number of deaths was inflated for military propaganda purposes.

Other figures are taken from Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Spanish. Bernal Diaz del Castillo ), a Spanish soldier who wrote his accounts for 50 years after the conquest. In describing the tzompantli, the place with the skulls of the victims, he counts about 100,000 skulls. However, to accommodate so many skulls, the tzompantli would have to be several kilometers long instead of the described 30 meters. Modern reconstructions count between 600 and 1200 skulls. Similarly, Díaz claimed that Tlaltelolco's zompantli, as important as that of Tenochtitlan, contained 60,000 skulls. According to the book of William Arens (eng. William Arens), 300 skulls were found during excavations.

Despite the agreement of many historians on the existence of ritual cannibalism associated with human sacrifice, most scholars do not support Harris' thesis that human meat was a significant part of the Aztec diet.

There is little information regarding Aztec cannibalism. There are only a few reports of cannibalism since the Conquista, none of which speak of extensive ritual cannibalism. The Ramirez Chronicle ambiguously links cannibalism to ritual sacrifice. The Codex Magliabechiano contains two drawings that unequivocally depict human meat used for food: in the ritual of worshiping the lord of the underworld, Mictlantecuhtli, and in the funeral rite, where a human hand lies along with other food. In the same place, in a commentary in Spanish, it is said that the Indians were very fond of the pork brought by the Spaniards, as it reminded them of human meat in taste.

Characteristic reports of Aztec cannibalism [ ] :

• Cortes writes in one of his letters that his soldiers caught an Aztec roasting a baby for breakfast.
• Gomarra writes that during the capture of Tenochtitlan, the Spaniards offered to surrender to the Aztecs, since they (the Aztecs) had no food. The Aztecs suggested that the Spaniards attack, then to be taken prisoner and eaten.
• In the books of Bernardino de Sahagún there is an illustration showing an Aztec being roasted by an unknown tribe. The caption under the illustration says that this was one of the dangers that threatened the Aztec merchants.
• In the chronicle of Ramirez, compiled by the Aztecs after the conquest, in the Latin alphabet, it is written that at the end of the sacrifice, the meat of the palms of the victim was given as a gift to the warrior who captured it. According to the chronicle, the meat was supposed to be eaten, but in fact it was replaced by a turkey.
• In his book, Juan Bautista de Pomar states that after the sacrifice, the body of the victim was given to the warrior who captured the victim, and then the warrior boiled it so that it could be cut into small pieces in order to offer them as a gift to important people in exchange for gifts and slaves; but this meat was rarely eaten, as it was believed that there was no value in it; it was replaced with a turkey or simply thrown away.

Art

Poetry

Life

Cloth

Men's clothing and women's clothing were decorated with ornaments, among which the most common were: the sun; geometric figures; gems, shells; animal motifs (rabbits, feathers, snakes, butterflies, fish); plants (cacti); falling snow. If we consider the clothing of the Aztecs by gender, it looked like this: the main attribute of men's clothing is mashlatl (a loincloth that was not removed even at night; it resembles modern diapers). Mashlatl was worn by boys from the age of thirteen. The main outer garment is the tilmatli (cloak). A rectangular piece of fabric was tied in a knot on the chest or shoulder in such a way that the body and legs were closed in front. The poorer classes wore almost monochromatic white cloaks and headbands, while wealthy men wore embroidered, colorful outfits. The warrior who captured the first enemy was embroidered with flowers or a scorpion on his cloak; after two prisoners, the cape was sheathed with a red border; the third feat was rewarded with a luxuriously embroidered cloak. Experienced warriors wore red capes with a white stripe. The priests wore dark green or black tilmatli with the image of bones, skulls, and only the “emperor” - tlatoani wore a green-blue shiutilmatli cloak. Aztec men's clothing was also in use: scicoli (a tunic with short sleeves that replaced a cloak), itcaupilli (a tight-fitting cotton quilted shirt that replaced armor). If a man dared to put on a suit that did not correspond to his class, he could incur severe punishment, sometimes even death. A mandatory attribute of women's clothing is a long skirt. The villagers walked with bare breasts, and already the representatives of the upper strata wore a huipil (a long blouse with embroidery at the neck) over the skirt. When going out into the streets, women threw a ketchkemitl (beautifully decorated diamond-shaped cape) over their shoulders. The commoners did not have shoes, and the warriors and the rich had cactli (sandals made of leather or agave fibers). Aztec clothing included headdresses, but they were worn only by the soldiers of the emperor's personal guard (feather bandages) and the emperor himself (crown). The Aztecs chose haircuts quite responsibly, since the hairstyle testified to the class position and other achievements. Jewelry, as opposed to restraint with cosmetics, was too rich, numerous, refined.

Nutrition

The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinampas, in Lake Texcoco; cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The staple foods of the Aztecs were maize (corn), beans and gourds. Chinampa were very efficient and produced up to seven crops per year, based on current yields chinampa it has been estimated that 1 hectare chinampa can feed 20 people, and from 9,000 hectares chinampa collected food for 180,000 people.

The Aztecs cultivated many varieties of corn with a wide range of amino acids; in addition, they grew amaranth, which contains a lot of protein in its grains. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocils, small shrimp that abound in Lake Texcoco; they also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae. Insects contain more protein than meat and are still a delicacy in parts of Mexico to this day. The Aztecs kept pets like turkey (ast. guajolote) and itzcuintli (ast. itzcuintli - a breed of meat dogs), although usually the meat of these animals was intended for special occasions - situations of expressing gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boars, ducks ...

Montenallo's research showed that the average life expectancy of Mesoamericans was 37 years (± 3 years) [ ] .

The Aztecs made extensive use of the agave (maguey); food, sugar, drinks were obtained from it ( pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothing. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Cocoa beans were used as money. Subordinate cities paid an annual tribute in the form of luxury items (such as feathers and ornate costumes).

After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants [ ] .

Writing

The Aztecs had their own written language, the Astec script.

Bibliography

Aztec sources

• Bernardino de Sahagun, S. A. Kuprienko. General history of the affairs of New Spain. Books X-XI: Knowledge astecs in medicine and botany / Ed. and trans. S. A. Kuprienko .. - K .: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 218 p. - (Mesoamerica. Sources. History. Man). - ISBN 978-617-7085-07-1.
• Anonymous authors. Codex Magliabecchi / Ed. and trans. V.N. Talakha, S.A. Kuprienko. - K.: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 202 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-04-0.
• Anonymous author. Codex Mendoza / Ed. and trans. S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh .. - K .: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 308 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-05-7.
• Presbyter Juan; Antonio Perez; fry Pedro de los Rios (glosses) . Mexican manuscript 385 "Codex Telleriano-Remensis" (with additions from Code Ríos) / Ed. and trans. S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh .. - K .: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 317 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-06-4.
• Talakh V.N., Kuprienko S.A./ Ed. V. N. Talakh, S. A. Kuprienko .. - K .: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2013. - 370 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-00-2.
• Tales about Suns. Myths and historical legends nahua / Ed. and trans. S. A. Kuprienko, V. N. Talakh .. - K .: Vidavets Kuprienko S.A., 2014. - 377 p. - ISBN 978-617-7085-11-8.

Mayan sources

• Talakh V. M. (ed.). Documents Pashbolon-Maldonado  (Campeche, Mexico, XVII century). (Russian). kuprienko.info(June 26, 2012). Retrieved June 27, 2012. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012.

Spanish sources

• Fry Bernardino de Sahagun. "Customs and beliefs" (an excerpt from book "General history about deeds New Spain") (indefinite) . www.kuprienko.info (April 16, 2006). - Ukraine, Kyiv, 2006. Translation from Spanish - A. Skromnitsky. Date of treatment July 29, 2010. Archived from the original on August 27, 2011.
• Historians Pre-Columbian America and Conquest. Book one. Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxochitl. Juan Bautista de Pomar / per. from Spanish V. N. Talakha; ed. V. A. Rubel. - K. : Lybid, 2013. - 504 p. - ISBN 978-966-06-0647-0.
• A History of the Mexicans According to Their Designs (16th century document on the religion and history of the Colua Mexica or Aztecs.)
• "A Tale of Some Things in New Spain and the Great City of Temestitan, Mexico City" (written by Hernán Cortés' collaborator, Anonymous Conquistador)
• Cortes, Hernan "Second Message to the Emperor Charles V" (letter written in Segura de la Frontera on October 30, 1520)

The occupations of the Aztecs, a civilization that left many mysteries and mysteries, were very diverse. There remains a lot of evidence of the existence of this people, which has come down to us through jewelry and weapons, pottery and weaving. What did the Aztecs do, what was most important to them? Let's try to find answers in this article.

Aztecs: a brief historical background

Among the most of the American continent, there are three: the Incas, the Mayans and the Aztecs. Much of the knowledge about which Mayan, Aztec, and Inca occupations were the most popular has unfortunately been lost. But still, there are many archaeological finds that help solve some of the mysteries of the ancient inhabitants of planet Earth.

The Aztecs are the name of several peoples who lived in a valley called Mexico City until the Spaniards conquered Mexico in 1521. The peoples who inhabited the valley spoke the Nahuatl language. Their territories were divided into states, they built cities that were ruled by royal dynasties.

Aztecs: their life and occupations

It is rather difficult to summarize the topic. left a very big mark in history. Thanks to archaeological finds, research by scientists and historians, now we can draw conclusions about how these people lived, find out what was significant for them and what activities of the Aztecs were the most important.

Civilization numbered about 60 thousand people, and this people, without false modesty, could be proud of themselves. It took the Aztecs only 2 centuries to turn from an ordinary tribe of nomads into formidable warriors who ruled the territory of the Mexico Valley.

From this, historians conclude that the most important occupation of this people was military craft. In addition, it is known that these people were highly educated. Studied and practiced: medicine, astronomy, music, history of laws and religion. The development of the art of housekeeping and various crafts were at a high level. Consider all these activities of the Aztecs in order.

military craft

This people loved to fight. The military craft was very well developed, so it is not surprising that the Aztecs were famous as conquerors of new lands. During the existence of this civilization, the territory of residence of the people was greatly expanded due to constant wars and the conquest of new territories.

Captured new lands, according to Aztec law, were distributed among the warriors who became most famous on the battlefield. Accordingly, the conquered tribes automatically turned into slaves. This served to ensure that many wealthy slave owners appeared among the Aztecs, whom the thirst for profit forced them to conquer new lands.

economy

The occupations of the Aztecs concerned various spheres of life. The basis of the economy was agriculture.

Archaeologists have discovered farmers: sticks with pointed and extended ends. The second option is a prototype of a modern shovel.

It is known that this people knew how to irrigate and fertilize the soil. Among the various crops, preference was given to corn, pumpkin, beans, peppers and squash. The Aztecs went down in history as the people who first began to cultivate cocoa beans and tomatoes. They also grew tobacco.

Also, the main occupations of the Aztecs included the cultivation of several types of cotton.

Among the features of their agriculture, the presence of floating gardens should be noted. All due to the fact that the city of Tenochtitlan itself was on the island. The limited amount of land led to the emergence of vegetable gardens afloat. These gardens were built on rafts with fertile soil attached to piles driven into the ground.

Hunting and fishing

The occupations of the Aztec population included hunting and fishing. This people had no tradition of keeping pets. The only ones were dogs, sometimes they were eaten.

Stocks of meat were replenished during the hunt. Hunters obtained food with the help of a bow and arrows, throwing darts were widely used, and special traps for animals were also in use.

The prey of the hunter could be: rabbits, deer and wild birds.

The peoples who lived on the shores of the lakes were successfully engaged in fishing.

culture

The culture of this people was highest level. It should be noted that for the male population, schooling was a compulsory occupation. There were two kinds of schools: for the rich and the poor. Schools of the first type prepared future priests, military leaders and dignitaries. Boys from simple families learned to be farmers, warriors and artisans.

Science, literature, philosophy and astronomy are the main occupations of the inhabitants. The Aztecs were revered as a highly developed civilization.

This people developed a star map of the sky. The Aztec calendar is widely known, which, taking into account the location and movement of the celestial stars, served to meet the needs of Agriculture.

Unfortunately, during the conquest of this territory by the Spaniards, many examples of culture and art were destroyed. Nevertheless, archaeologists have recently discovered buildings that give us the opportunity to gain knowledge about how developed the Aztecs were in the field of architecture.

One of the attractions is the temple in Malinalco, which was completely carved from a single rock. Archaeologists say that apart from stone tools, this people had no others. Imagine how much effort it took to build this temple.

The main temple of Templo Mayor was discovered by archaeologists by accident. It happened in the 80s of the last century during an earthquake. This discovery made it possible to see the figures of gods carved from stone, as well as ceramic and jewelry. It should be noted that the Aztecs practiced human sacrifices to their gods. The handles of sacrificial knives were decorated with a mosaic pattern of turquoise and shell fragments.

Thanks to these finds, we can accurately determine how the Aztecs lived, whose occupations were distinguished by their diversity and highly developed culture.

End of story

This civilization remained unsolved until the end. All due to the fact that the cultural heritage of the Aztecs was partially destroyed during the conquests. Having reached cultural heights, the Aztec people could not survive and preserve for history most of their achievements. On the ruins of the Aztec capital grew new town- Mexico City, which went down in history as the center of the colonial possessions of new conquerors from Europe.

The Aztecs belonged to the last wave of Indian tribes that migrated from the more northerly regions of the American continent to the Mexico Valley. The culture of these tribes at first did not have any pronounced features, but gradually they crystallized into a single solid whole - the Aztec civilization. Initially, the tribes lived separately in their village and satisfied their vital needs by cultivating the land. These resources, if possible, were supplemented by the tribute of the conquered peoples. At the head of the tribe was a hereditary leader, who simultaneously performed priestly functions. Religious ideas were characterized by a complex polytheistic system based on the worship of nature, with the allocation of the veneration of one or more gods into special cults.

1168 AD the history of the Aztecs begins. The Aztecs (meshiks or tenochki) begin their exodus from the ancestral home of Aztlana, guided by their supreme god of war, Huitzilopochtli. Around 1325, they founded the city of Tenochtitlan, which was located on the site of the city of Mexico City, which later became the capital of the most powerful state of Mexico. Initially, the tenochki became dependent on the city of Culuacan. It was a huge city that played an important role in the Mexico Valley. Other largest center This time was the city of Texcoco, located on the eastern shore of the Mexican lakes. About seventy cities paid tribute to its ruler Kinatzin (1298-1357). His successor Techotlal managed to combine all the dialects of the Valley of Mexico into one Aztec language.

The Aztec culture was the last link in a long chain of advanced civilizations that flourished and declined in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The most ancient of them, the Olmec culture, developed on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 14th - 3rd centuries. BC e. The Olmecs paved the way for the formation of subsequent civilizations, so the era of their existence is called preclassical. They had a developed mythology with an extensive pantheon of gods, erected massive stone structures, were skilled in stone carving and pottery. Their society was hierarchical and narrowly professionalized; the latter manifested itself, in particular, in the fact that specially trained people dealt with religious, administrative and economic issues. These features of Olmec society received further development in later civilizations.

State education of the Aztecs in Mexico in the 14th - early 16th centuries. with the center in the city of Tenochtitlan until 1348 was dependent on the rulers of the city of Culuacán in 1348-1427. In the late 20s of the 15th century, the Aztec ruler Itzcoatl led the "union of three cities" of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan and defeated the rulers of Azcopotzalco. As a result of the wars of conquest waged by Itzcoatl and his successors (Montezuma I the Wrathful, ruled in Auitzotl 1440-1469; Ashayacatl 1469-1486; Auitzotl 1486-1503), not only the valley became part of the Aztec kingdom rivers of Mexico City, but also all of Central Mexico. The Aztec kingdom reached its peak under Montezuma II (1503–1519). In the 15th - early 16th centuries. slavery was greatly developed. The main ruler of the Aztec kingdom, tlacatecuhtli or tlatoani, was formally an elected leader, but in fact his power was hereditary. The formation of the main classes of society was not completed. The position of a member of society was determined by his belonging not only to a class, but also to a caste, of which there were more than ten in the Aztec kingdom.

By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century, the Aztec Empire covered a vast territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km - with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the empire - Tenochtitlan - eventually turned into a huge city, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people. This island city was connected to the mainland by three large stone roads - dams, there was also a whole flotilla of canoes. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city was formed by the ritual-administrative center: the "sacred site" - a walled square 400 m long, inside which were the main city temples, the dwellings of the priests, schools, a platform for a ritual ball game. Nearby were ensembles of magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II consisted of up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths. Around the center crowded residential quarters inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, warriors. In the huge Main Market and smaller quarterly bazaars, local and imported products and products were traded. General impression The words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest, the soldier Bercal Diaz del Castillo from the detachment of Cortes, are well conveyed about the magnificent Aztec capital. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked with amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various cargoes, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house it was possible to get only on suspension bridges or on boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with whiteness and aroused admiration.

Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortes after a three-month siege and fierce struggle in 1525. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built a new city - Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of their colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter layers. modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct a systematic and extensive archaeological study of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally, during earthworks in the center of Mexico City, stone sculptures are born - the creations of ancient masters. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s - 80s became a real sensation. 20th century during the excavations of the main temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between the cathedral and presidential palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings and stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly prominent are a round stone with a diameter of more than three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka - the sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pits - hiding places filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about the material culture, religion, trade, economic and political relations of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.

The Aztecs were in that initial phase of social development when the alien captive-slave was not yet fully included in the economic mechanism of the emerging class society, when the benefits and advantages that slave labor could give were not yet fully realized. However, the institution of debt slavery had already emerged, spreading to the local poor; The Aztec slave found his place in the new, developing production relations, but he retained the right to redeem, which, as is known, the "classical" slave is deprived of. Of course, foreign slaves were also involved in economic activity, but the labor of a slave has not yet become the foundation of this society.

The senseless destruction of thousands of captive slaves on the sacrificial altars of the Aztec temples was elevated to the basis of a cult. Human sacrifice has become the central event of any holiday. Sacrifices were made almost daily. One person was sacrificed with solemn honors. So, every year, the most beautiful young man was chosen from among the prisoners, who was destined to enjoy all the benefits and privileges of the god of war Tezcatlipoca for a year, so that after this period he would be on the sacrificial altar stone. But there were also such "holidays" when the priests sent hundreds, and according to some sources, thousands of prisoners to another world. True, it is hard to believe in the authenticity of such statements, which belong to eyewitnesses of the conquest, but the gloomy and cruel, uncompromising religion of the Aztecs with mass human sacrifice knew no limits in its zealous service to the ruling caste aristocracy.

The Aztec state was a fragile territorial entity, similar to the many territorial empires of antiquity. The nature of its economy was polymorphic, but the basis was intensive irrigated agriculture. The set of crops grown by the Aztecs was typical of the Valley of Mexico. These are corn, zucchini, pumpkin, green and red peppers, many types of legumes and cotton. Tobacco was also grown, which the Aztecs smoked mostly in hollow cane stems, like cigarettes. The Aztecs also loved chocolate, made from cocoa beans. The latter also served as a medium of exchange. Agriculture was an important part of life in Tenochtitlan. The Aztec codes, as well as the Spanish chronicles, say that the Aztec landowners created strips of fertile land built on the water, using silt and algae from the surrounding swamps. These man-made fields, the chinampas, were divided by canals, and the edges had to be reinforced with wooden props or specially planted trees to keep the land from falling back into the water. The Aztec chinampas were remarkably fertile. Farmers grew a wide variety of crops, including maize, peppers, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans, spices and flowers, squash, oil crops, and cotton. The swamps were drained through a network of canals. The intoxicating drink pulque was made from agave juice.

The Aztecs had few domestic animals. They had several breeds of dogs, one of which was food. The most common poultry are turkeys, perhaps geese, ducks and quails. A significant role in the Aztec economy was played by handicrafts, especially pottery, weaving, as well as stone and wood processing. There were few metal items. Some of them, for example, thinly hammered sickle-shaped copper knives, served alongside cocoa beans as a medium of exchange. Gold was used by the Aztecs only for making jewelry, and silver was probably of great value. Jade and stones resembling it in color and structure were of paramount importance among the Aztecs. Crafts separated from agriculture and reached a high level of development.

The market was located in one of the districts of Tenochtitlan called Tlatelolco. Judging by the descriptions of the Spanish soldiers, they had never before seen such a large and well-organized market with such a huge variety of goods as in Tenochtitlan. Each type of goods had its own special place there, and all goods were carefully checked. Those who stole or cheated were severely punished. The only type of exchange among the Aztecs was barter. Cocoa beans, feather rods filled with golden sand, pieces of cotton cloth (cuachtli) and the copper knives mentioned above served as a medium of exchange. Due to the high cost of human labor for transportation in the Aztec state, it was reasonable to bring the places of production of products and products as close as possible to the places of their consumption. Therefore, the population of the cities turned out to be extremely diverse both professionally and socially, and many artisans worked in the fields and gardens for a significant part of the time. Over long distances, it was profitable to move only the most expensive or light in weight and small in volume products - for example, fabrics or obsidian; but the local exchange was extraordinarily lively. The Aztecs were very well educated, taught such disciplines as: religion, astronomy, history of laws, medicine, music and the art of war. The art of dance and many sports were developed, as well as theater and poetry. They had a ball game very similar to today's basketball.

The ruler or king was called "tlatoani". In speeches dedicated to the new ruler, it was emphasized that he was only a representative of Tezcatlipoca on earth, his likeness, an instrument through which the almighty deity rules over people. The role of the ruler as an intermediary between the gods and people, or even more precisely the tools of the gods.

The following five groups were distinguished in the social structure of the Aztec society: warriors, priests, merchants, commoners, slaves. The first three estates constituted the privileged classes of society, the fourth and fifth groups - its exploited part. Estates were not homogeneous. Within them there was a certain hierarchy, due to the size of property and social position. All classes were clearly separated, and this could be determined even by clothing. According to one of the laws introduced by Montezuma I, each estate had to wear its own type of clothing. This also applied to slaves. The military nobility played a decisive role in Aztec society. The title of tecuhtli ("noble") was usually given to people who held an important state and military post. Most of the civilian ranks were in fact the same military. The most noble wars who distinguished themselves in battle formed a kind of "order", a special union of "Eagles" or "Jaguars". The nobility received in-kind allowances and land allotments from the tlatoani. No one except nobles and leaders could, under pain of death, build a house with two floors. There was a difference in punishments for offenses for a noble person and a commoner. Moreover, class norms were often more cruel. So, if a person who was in enemy captivity was of “low birth”, then he was not threatened with expulsion from the community and family, while the “noble” was killed by compatriots and relatives themselves. This reflected the desire to keep the top of society the strength of their position.

The priesthood was also among the privileged classes of the Aztec society. The conquering Aztecs were extremely interested in strengthening the religion, because it, preaching war as the highest valor, and the Aztecs as the most worthy of its bearers, gave an ideological justification for the policy of conquest, which they pursued throughout their independent history. The priests were in the forefront during military campaigns. They were the first to meet at the gates of the capital the warriors returning home. Temples increased their wealth through gifts and voluntary donations. It could be donations of land or part of the tribute to the nobility and tlatoani. The donation of the population could be for a variety of reasons: divination, prediction, offerings for the sake of the success of their activities. It was at the temples and their own handicraft production. All income went to the maintenance of the priesthood and the conduct of numerous religious rites. The life of the priesthood was regulated by certain norms. The priest, guilty of having a relationship with a woman, was secretly beaten with sticks, their property was taken away, and the house was destroyed. They also killed all those who were involved in this crime. If the priest had unnatural inclinations, then he was burned alive.

The lowest social step in the hierarchy of the Aztec society was occupied by slaves. The sources of slavery among the Aztecs were varied. Selling into slavery for theft was practiced. Debt slavery was widespread. Treason against the state or one's immediate master was also punished involuntarily. However, the most characteristic of the ancient Aztec society was patriarchal slavery. Parents could sell their "negligent" children into slavery. This happened more often in lean years, when there was a widespread slave trade.

The Aztec state included about 500 cities and other settlements, divided into 38 administrative units headed by local rulers or specially sent managers. To collect tribute, monitor the royal lands and office plots, there were special officials - kalpishki, appointed from the military class. There was also a local judiciary. Local courts considered only minor crimes, or else, the evidence of which is easily proven. It was these courts that decided the bulk of the cases of ordinary citizens. To record cases in various institutions, there was a special staff of "scribes". In most cases, entries were made using pictography, however, May hieroglyphic writing was also sometimes used.

Diverse interpersonal relationships in Aztec society regulated marriage and family norms. Their most characteristic feature was the unlimited power of their father and husband. The basis of the family was marriage, the procedure for concluding which was equally an act both religious and legal. It was built, as a rule, on the principle of monogamy, but for wealthy people polygamy was also allowed. There were two types of inheritance - by law and by will. Only sons succeeded. The payback for adultery was death in different ways. Blood relatives were punished by death for intimate relationships: the guilty were hanged. However, levirate marriages were allowed. Drunkenness was severely punished. Only people over fifty could consume intoxicating drinks, and a strictly defined amount. Young people caught drinking were punished at school, sometimes beaten to death.

The last Aztec ruler in Tenochitlán was Montezuma II Shokoyotzin (1502–1520). The Spaniards who came to America conquered the continent.

The Aztecs not only worshiped the Feathered Serpent as one of the main inhabitants of the pantheon of their gods, but also remembered well the story of his exile. The priests, trying to keep the people in fear and obedience, constantly reminded of the return of Quetzalcoatl. They convinced the people that the offended deity, who had gone to the east, would return from the east to punish everyone and everything. Moreover, the legend said that Quetzalcoatl was white-faced and bearded, while the Indians were beardless, beardless and swarthy! The white-faced Spaniards who wore beards came from the East. Oddly enough, the first, and at the same time unconditionally, believed that the Spaniards were the descendants of the legendary deity Quetzalcoatl, none other than the omnipotent ruler of Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma, who enjoyed unlimited power. Fear of the divine origin of foreigners paralyzed his ability to resist, and the whole hitherto mighty country, together with a magnificent military machine, found itself at the feet of the conquerors. The Aztecs should immediately remove their ruler, distraught with fear, but the same religion, which inspired the inviolability of the existing order, prevented this. When reason finally conquered religious prejudices, it was too late. As a result, the giant empire was wiped off the face of the earth, the Aztec civilization ceased to exist. The rich and distinctive culture of the Aztecs was destroyed as a result of the Spanish conquest from 1519 to 1521. The capital of the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan, was destroyed by the conquistadors to the ground.

Summarizing the history and life of the Aztecs, we can say that their culture was made up of religion and politics. The priests had almost complete power over the people. Perhaps, there is hardly another similar example in history when it was religion that turned out to be the decisive factor in the defeat and complete destruction of those to whom it was supposed to serve faithfully. People's lives were completely controlled by laws based on religion. Even clothing and food were strictly regulated. Trade flourished, and in the market of the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, you could buy anything you wanted.

In complete contrast to the order in the European colonies, a person could be declared a slave if he tried to prevent the slave from escaping (unless he was a relative of the owner), no one tried to help the owner catch the slave. Also, a slave could not be sold without his consent, except in cases where the authorities qualified the slave as disobedient. (Naughty was defined as laziness, escape attempts, and bad behavior.) Disobedient slaves were forced to wear wooden neck shackles with hoops at the back. The shackles were not just a sign of guilt; their device made it difficult to escape in the crowd or in narrow passages.

When buying a shackled slave, the buyer was told how many times that slave had been resold. A slave sold four times as disobedient could be sold as a sacrifice; such slaves were sold for a higher price.

However, if a chained slave presented himself in the royal palace or temple, he received freedom.

Aztec could become a slave as punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could be given as a slave to the widow of the murdered at her request. The father could sell his son into slavery if the authorities declared the son disobedient. Debtors who did not pay their debts could also be sold into slavery.

In addition, the Aztecs could sell themselves as slaves. They could remain free long enough to enjoy the price of their freedom - about a year - after which they went to a new owner. Usually, this was the lot of unfortunate players and old "Auini" - courtesans or prostitutes.

Entertainment and games

aztec empire communication

Although it was possible to drink "pulque", (a fermented drink with a low alcohol content), the Aztecs were forbidden to get drunk before they reached the age of sixty; violation of this prohibition was punishable by death.

As in modern Mexico, the Aztecs were passionate ball players, but in their case it was tlachtli, the Aztec variant of the ancient Mesoamerican game of ulama. This game was played with a solid rubber ball the size of a human head. The ball was called "ollie", from which comes the Spanish "ule", meaning rubber.

According to other sources, the ball was made of stone, and the game was characterized by extraordinary cruelty - the weight of the ball was so great that it was a big problem to throw it into a special ring located high enough without causing physical damage to yourself.

The participant of the game, who got the ball into the ring, was sacrificed.

The ritual ball game ended with the sacrifice of the best player or the captain of the winning team. (According to other sources, the captain and players of the losing team were sacrificed).

The sacrifice of the participant who scored the "goal" was a great honor both for himself and for his entire family. Participants who did not show enough dexterity during the game remained to live, but along with their families fell to the lowest social stratum of society.

Education

Until the age of fourteen, the education of children was in the hands of their parents. There was an oral tradition (a set of oral instructions), called uehuetlatolli ("proverbs of the old people"), which conveyed the moral and ethical ideals of the Aztecs.

There were replicas and sayings for every occasion, there were words for greeting birth and words for farewell at death.

Boys went to school from the age of 15. There were two types of educational institutions. Tepochcalli taught history, religion, military art, as well as trade and craft (peasant or artisan). In the Calmecs, where the sons of the pilli mainly went, they focused on the training of leaders (tlaktok), priests, scholar-teachers and scribes. They were trained in rituals, literacy, chronology, poetry and, as in tepochcalli, martial arts.

The Aztec teachers offered a Spartan regime of training—cold baths in the morning, hard work, physical punishment, bloodletting with spikes, and endurance tests—with the goal of molding a courageous people.

Girls were taught home crafts and child rearing, they were not taught to read and write.

There were two main opportunities for gifted children: some were sent to the song and dance house, and others to the ball game house. Both occupations had a high status.

The Aztecs created artificial islands, or chinampas, on Lake Tnskoko; cereals and horticultural crops were grown on these islands. The staple foods of the Aztecs were maize (corn) beans and pumpkins. The chinampa were very efficient and produced up to seven crops a year, based on current harvests, the chinampa collected food for 180,000 people. Much has been said about the lack of protein in the Aztec diet as an argument in support of the theory of their existence of cannibalism, but these statements are unproven: the combination of maize and beans provides the necessary norm of the most important amino acids, which eliminates the problem of protein deficiency. Moreover, the Aztecs had a wide variety of other foods: they caught acocils, small shrimp that abound in Lake Texcoco; they collected flavoprotein-rich spirulina algae, which was used in various types of pastries; they also ate insects: crickets, worms, ants and larvae.

Insects contain more protein than meat, and to this day, they are a delicacy in parts of Mexico. The Aztecs kept pets like the turkey and the Itzcuintli (a breed of meat dog), although these animals were usually reserved for special occasions of gratitude and respect. Another source of meat was hunting - fallow deer, wild boars, ducks ...

In my opinion, if the Aztecs had cannibalism, then most likely not from a lack of protein or meat, but rather from any religious considerations and traditions, for example, a way to show and feel the power of greatness and superiority over other people.

The Aztecs used the agave extensively; food, sugar, drinks (pulque) and fibers for ropes and clothes were obtained from it. Cotton and jewelry were only available to the elite. Subordinate cities paid an annual tribute in the form of luxury items (such as feathers and ornate costumes).

After the Spanish conquest, some food crops, such as amaranth, were banned, which led to a reduction in the diet and chronic malnutrition of the inhabitants.

Poetry was the only worthy occupation of the Aztec warrior in peacetime. Despite the upheaval of the era, a number of poetic works collected during the time of the Conquista have come down to us. For several dozen poetic texts, the names of the authors are even known, for example, Nezaualko-Yotl and Kuakutsin.

Cheat Sheet: Aztec Culture

Miguel Leon-Portilla, the most famous translator from Nahuatl, reports that it is in poetry that we can find the true intentions of Aztec thought, regardless of the "official" worldview.

In the basement of the Great Temple is the "House of Eagles" where, in peacetime, the Aztec military leaders could drink foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars and compete in poetry.

The poems were accompanied by playing percussion instruments. One of the most common themes of poetry is “is life a reality or a dream?” and the opportunity to meet the Creator. The Aztecs loved drama, but the Aztec version of this art form would hardly be called theater. The most famous genres are performances with music and acrobatic performances and performances about the gods.

Aztec militancy

None of the other nations sought military glory as much as the Aztecs. The most honorable was death in battle or on a sacrificial stone. Warriors who died in battle, victims, as well as women who died during childbirth, could hope for the highest honor in the afterlife; almost all others, despite social status, were forced to wander through the dungeon for four years before reaching the lowest level of the otherworldly kingdom, which the Aztecs called the Land of the Dead, or "our common home."

One of the reasons for militancy was religion. Every night the struggle of the Sun with the Moon and stars is repeated, and if Huitzilopochtli loses the battle, then life is doomed to perish in the dark. The forces of the deity must be restored every day, and according to the ideas of the Aztecs, human blood, which they called "precious water", is the best suited for this.

Scholars are not unanimous about how many people the Aztecs killed each year, but it is likely that around 20,000 people were sacrificed throughout the empire.

In the world of warring states, a lot could be achieved solely by military skill, and the Aztecs understood this very well. According to the information from the codes, the reports of the Spaniards and the results archaeological sites, in Mesoamerica, no developed weapons of warfare appeared. The outcome of the battle depended solely on the skill of individual warriors. Under such conditions, the winner will be the one who achieves two goals - strengthening the military organization and increasing the morale of the fighters. The entire Aztec culture was built to achieve these goals as much as possible.

There is a special logic in the Aztecs' desire for military success. It is noteworthy that the Aztecs almost did not try to conquer the conquered peoples. They did not build fortresses and did not leave garrisons behind enemy lines.

Instead, they sought to frighten the other city-states of the region: only the fear of retribution kept the tribute coming. Any hint that the Aztecs were no longer invincible would spark an immediate uprising, and the Spaniards took advantage of this, aided by locals who wanted to overthrow their oppressors.

However, the Aztec war machine was trouble-free and as advanced as the level of development of society allowed. All the energy of the state was aimed at increasing military power. From the age of 20, any healthy man could be called to military company, which regularly began in the fall, after the harvest and the end of the summer rains. In addition, there were professional warriors from among the nobility and commoners who distinguished themselves on the battlefield. They did not perform any other duties, but were kept mainly at the expense of tribute from the conquered cities.

The battles were mostly chaotic and furious hand-to-hand combat, with many opportunities for each to distinguish himself. In heroism, they were more reminiscent of the battles of Homeric Greece than the European armed maneuvers of that time. Usually the battle began with shelling from bows and slings. Then the troops converged, lined up in a long line, fired darts from atlas. Experienced veterans were at the forefront, and they entered into hand-to-hand combat with the enemy.

The purpose of the hostilities was to force the conquered peoples to recognize the rule of the Aztecs and pay tribute to them. By 1519, about 370 cities had suffered a similar fate, and the amount of tribute supplied to Tenochtitlan annually was grandiose. The tribute included 7,000 tons of grain, 4,000 tons of beans, 2 million cotton cloaks, along with a smaller number of military armor, shields, and feather headdresses.

During the excavations of the Great Temple, many luxury items were found, most of which came to the Aztecs as tribute, since they are not found in the Valley of Mexico.

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The Aztec Empire, centered on the capital Tenochtitlan, dominated much of Mesoamerica in the 15th and 16th centuries CE. Through military conquest and the expansion of trade, Aztec art also spread, helping the Aztecs achieve cultural and political hegemony over their subjects and create for posterity a tangible record of the artistic imagination and talent of the artists of this last great civilization of Mesoamerica.

INFLUENCES
Ordinary flows run through the history of Mesoamerican art. The cultures of the Olmec, Maya, Toltec, and Zapotec, among others, perpetuated an artistic tradition that showed a fondness for monumental stone sculpture, imposing architecture, highly colored pottery, geometric stamps for fabric and body art, and spectacular metalwork that was used to represent people. animals, plants, gods and features of religious ceremony, especially those rites and deities associated with fertility and agriculture.

Aztec artists were also influenced by their contemporaries from neighboring states, especially artists from Oaxaca (many of whom were permanent residents of Tenochtitlán) and the Huasteca region on the Gulf Coast, where there was a strong tradition of three-dimensional sculpture. These diverse influences and the Aztecs' own eclectic tastes and admiration for ancient art have made their art one of the most diverse of all ancient cultures anywhere. Sculptures of terrible gods with abstract images may come from the same workshop as naturalistic works depicting the beauty and grace of animal and human form.

FEATURES OF AZTECA ART
Metallurgy was a special skill of the Aztecs. The great Renaissance painter Albrecht Draurer saw some of the artefacts returned to Europe that made him say: “… I have never seen in all my days something that made my heart so glad as these things. For I saw marvelous objects of art among them, and I marveled at the subtle ingenuity of the people in these distant lands.” Unfortunately, as is the case with most other artifacts, these objects were melted down for currency, and thus very few examples have survived due to the Aztecs' excellent metalworking skills in gold and silver. Smaller items have been unearthed, including gold labrettes (lip piercings), pendants, rings, earrings and necklaces in gold, representing everything from eagles to tortoise shells to gods, testifying to the skill of lost wax casting and the filigree work of the finest artisans or toltec.

Aztec sculpture was the best survivor, and its subject matter was very often people from the vast family of gods they worshipped. Carved in stone and wood, these figures, sometimes monumental in size, were not idols containing the spirit of a god, as in the Aztec religion, the spirit of a particular deity was considered to be inhabited in sacred holy sacred temples and temples. However, it was considered necessary to "feed" these sculptures with blood and precious objects, hence the stories from the Spanish conquistadors of huge statues spattered with blood and inlaid with precious stones and gold. Other large sculptures, more in a circle, include the magnificent seated god Xochipilli and various chacmools, hollow-cut reclining figures in a chest used as a vessel for heart offerings. They, like most other Aztec sculptures, were once painted using a wide range bright colors.

Sculpture on a smaller scale has been found at sites throughout Central Mexico. They often take the form of local deities and especially gods associated with agriculture. The most common are the upright female figures of the maize deity, usually with an imposing headdress and the maize god Xipe Totec. Lacking the sophistication of imperial art, these sculptures and similar ceramic figures often represent the more benevolent side of the Aztec gods.

Miniature work was also popular when objects such as plants, insects, and shells were presented in precious materials such as carnelite, pearls, amethyst, rock crystal, obsidian, shell, and the most valuable of all materials, jade. Another material that was highly valued was exotic feathers, especially the green plumage of the quetzal bird. Feathers cut into small pieces were used to create mosaic paintings, as decorations for shields, costumes and worshipers, and in magnificent headdresses such as the one attributed to Motekuhoma II, now in the Museum für Völkerkunde in Vienna.

Turquoise was a particularly popular material with Aztec artists, and its use in mosaic form to cover sculptures and masks created some of the most striking images from Mesoamerica. A typical example is the decorated human skull which represents the god Tezcatlipoca and which is now in the British Museum in London. Another fine example is the mask of Xiuhtecuhtli, the god of fire, sleepy mother-of-pearl eyes and a lovely set of white shells. Finally, there is the magnificent double-headed snake cloak, also now in the British Museum. With carved cedar wood entirely covered in small squares of turquoise, and red mouths and white teeth made into a spondylus and shell, respectively, the piece was probably part of a ceremonial costume. The snake was a powerful image in Aztec art as a being capable of shedding its skin, representing regeneration, and was also especially associated with the god Quetzalcoatl.

Despite the lack of a potter's wheel, the Aztecs were also skilled with pottery, as indicated by the large hollow figures and several beautifully carved covered urns that were unearthed near the Mayor Templo in Tenochtitlan, probably used as vessels for funerary ash. Other examples of ceramic work are molded Texcoco tripod-footed censers, erupted jugs, and elegant cups with hourglass clocks. These vessels are generally thin-walled, well-distributed, have cream or red and black glides, and bear finely colored geometric designs in earlier designs, and flora and fauna in later examples. The most valuable pottery of the Aztecs themselves, and the type used by Motecuhsoma himself, was the ultra-fine Cholula ware from Cholollan in the Puebla Valley. Vessels could also be made from molds or carved while the clay was still tough. An excellent example of these anthropomorphic vessels is the famous vase representing the head of the rain god Tlaloc, painted in bright blue, with ocular eyes and fearsome red fangs, now in National Museum anthropology in Mexico City.

Musical instruments were another important part of the Aztec artist's repertoire. These include ceramic flutes and wooden teponazlits and huehuelts, respectively, long and upright ceremonial drums. They are richly carved, and one of the best is the Malinalco drum, which is covered with dancing jaguars and eagles that represent sacrificial victims, as indicated by the banners and speech scrolls of battle and fire symbols.

ART AS PROPAGANDA
The Aztecs, like their cultural predecessors, used art as a tool to enhance their military and cultural dominance.

The overlay of buildings, frescoes, sculptures, and even manuscripts, especially at key sites such as Tenochtitlan, not only represented and even reproduced key elements of the Aztec religion, but also reminded the subjects of wealth and power that permitted their construction and production.

The supreme example of this use of art as a conveyor of political and religious messages is the Mayor Templo in Tenochtitlan, which was much more than an extremely impressive pyramid. It has been carefully designed in every detail to present sacred mountain the serpent of the land of Coatepec, so important in Aztec religion and mythology. This mountain was the place where Coatlicue (earth) gave birth to her son Huitzilopochtli (sun), who defeated the other gods (stars) led by his sister Coyolxauqui (moon). The Huitzilopochtli temple was built on top of the pyramid along with another in honor of the rain god Tlaloc. Further associations with the myth are the snake sculptures lining the base and the large Coyolxauca stone carved in c. 1473 AD, also found at the base of the pyramid, showing in relief the dismembered body of a fallen goddess. The stone, along with other sculptures such as the Tisok Stone, linked this cosmic image to the modern defeat of local enemies. In the case of the Coyolhaujica stone, the defeat of Tlateloloch is mentioned. Finally, the Mayor Templo was himself a repository of art, for when its interior was explored, an extensive appearance of sculptures and art objects buried with the remains of the dead was discovered, and in many cases these works work that the Aztecs themselves collected from more ancient cultures than theirs. own.

Temples praising the Aztec worldview were also built in the conquered territories. The Aztecs usually left the existing political and administrative structures in place, but they imposed their own gods in a hierarchy above the local deities, and this was largely done through architecture and art, backed up by sacrificial rites in these new sacred places, usually built on previous sacred sites and often in spectacular settings such as mountain peaks.

Aztec imagery that spread throughout the empire includes much lesser-known deities than Huitzilopochtli, and there are a surprising number of examples of nature and agricultural gods. Perhaps the most famous are the reliefs of the water goddess Chalchiuhtlicue on the Malinche hill near ancient Tula. These and other works of Aztec art were most often produced by local artists and may have been commissioned by state-representing authorities or private colonists from the Aztec center. Architectural art, rock paintings of gods, animals and shields, and other pieces of art have been found throughout the empire from Puebla to Veracruz and especially around cities, hills, springs and caves. In addition, these works are usually unique, indicating the absence of any organized workshops.

MASTERPIECES
The large circular stone of Tizoc (carved in 1485 AD from basalt) is a masterful blend of cosmic mythology and real politics. It was originally used as a surface for human sacrifice, and since these victims were usually defeated warriors, it is only fitting that the reliefs around the edge of the stone depict the Aztec ruler Tizoc attacking warriors from Matlazzinca, an area conquered by Tizoc in the late 15th century CE. The vanquished are also depicted as chichimecs, i.e. landless barbarians, while the victors wear the noble dress of the revered ancient Toltec. The upper surface of the stone with a diameter of 2.67 m depicts an eight-pointed solar disk. The Tizoc Stone is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

The massive basalt statue of Coatlicue (carved in the last half century of Aztec rule) is widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Aztec sculpture. The goddess is represented in a terrifying form with two snake heads, clawed feet and hands, a necklace of dismembered hands and human hearts with a skull pendant, and a skirt of writhing snakes. Possibly one of four people and representing a revelation of female power and terror, the 3.5 m tall statue leans forward slightly so that the overall dramatic effect of the piece is so emotive that it is understandable why the statue was actually reburied several times after its original excavation in 1790. year. The Coatlicue statue is now in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.

The Sun Stone, also known as the Calendar Stone (despite not being functional), has to be the most recognizable artistic object created by any of the great civilizations of Mesoamerica. Discovered in the 18th century AD. near the cathedral in Mexico City, the stone was carved c. 1427 AD E. And shows the sun disk, which represents the five successive worlds of the sun from Aztec mythology. Basalt stone with a diameter of 3.78 m, almost a meter thick, was once part of the Templo Mayor complex in Tenochtitlan. In the center of the stone is an image of either the sun god Tonatiuh (Day of the Sun), or Iohualtonatiuh (Night Sun), or the original earth monster Tlaltehuhtli, in the latter case representing the final destruction of the world when the fifth sun fell to Earth. Around the central face at four points are four more suns, which successively replaced each other after the gods Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca fought for control of the cosmos until the epoch of the 5th Sun was reached. On either side of the central face are two jaguar heads or paws, each holding a heart, representing the earthly realm. The two heads in the lower center represent fiery serpents, and their bodies run around the perimeter of the stone, each ending in a tail. The four cardinal and intercardinal directions are also indicated by larger and smaller dots, respectively.

As one of the last examples of the wealth of Aztec art that survived the best destructive efforts of their conquerors, there is the warrior eagle from Tenochtitlán. This figure appears to be about to run, is in terracotta, and was made from four separate pieces. This Knight of Needles wears a helmet representing a bird of prey, has wings and even clawed feet. Remains of plaster suggest that the figure was once covered in real feathers for an even more life-like effect. Initially, he would have stood with a partner, on either side of the doorway.

CONCLUSION
After the fall of the Aztec empire, the production of local art went into decline.

The culture of the ancient Aztecs briefly

However, some Aztec designs lived on in the work of local artists hired by the Augustinian monks to decorate their new churches in the 16th century CE. The production of manuscripts and pen continued, but only at the end of the 18th century AD. an interest in Precolumbian art and history would lead to a more systematic exploration of what lies beneath the foundations of modern Mexican cities. Gradually an increasing number of Aztec artifacts revealed that there was ever any doubt, proof that the Aztecs were among the most ambitious, creative and eclectic artists that Mesoamerica had ever produced.

112. Aztec myths in religious and cultural traditions

Temples in honor of the gods. The legends and myths of the Aztecs were closely connected with the religious life of this people. Numerous gods of the Aztec pantheon were dedicated to magnificent temples, elevated to the tops of the pyramids. In the center of the Aztec capital was a giant truncated five-stage pyramid. The area of ​​its base probably reached 1000 m 2 . At the top of the pyramid, at a height of about 30 m, there were two temples. Stairs of 114 steps led to the sanctuaries, arranged in such a way that the procession going up on each ledge went around the building. According to the Spaniards, one of them contained a gigantic image of Huitzilopochtli, adorned with a chain of gold and silver hearts. Nearby, probably, was the sanctuary of Tezcatlipoca. Huge statues of deities were placed in front of the altars, on which offerings were placed.

During the magnificent celebrations held twice a year, a huge image of Huitzilopochtli was made from bread dough with honey. After performing religious rites, the participants of the holiday in a solemn atmosphere divided it into pieces and ate it.

Finds at Teotihuacan. In the place where the Sun and Moon were once born, the Indians, the predecessors of the Aztecs, erected pyramids and built majestic temples. Archaeologists have unearthed a giant Pyramid of the Sun and its smaller copy - the Pyramid of the Moon. The height of the Pyramid of the Sun may have reached 71 meters. 765 thousand cubic meters of building material were laid in it. Once upon a time there was a temple on its top, but today there is practically nothing left of it. The majestic building captured the imagination of the Aztecs. They considered it the creation of giants. Not far from the Pyramid of the Sun, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl was discovered. It was decorated with snake heads.

human sacrifice

Sacrifices. If in the legend about the birth of the Sun and the Moon it was indicated that the gods sacrificed themselves for the sake of people, then the conclusion followed from this - people should sacrifice the most precious and valuable to the gods. In order to supply the gods with energy and thereby postpone the inevitable death of the human race, they must be watered with the blood of people. Sacrifices, the Aztecs believed, were necessary to sustain life on earth: human blood nourished the Sun, caused rain, and ensured human existence on earth.

In some rituals, a chosen one was sacrificed, who had the honor of embodying a deity. The Aztecs had a common custom - every year a handsome young man was elected, who did not have physical disabilities, who was considered the incarnation of Tezcatlipoca. He was treated like a deity, satisfying any of his desires, and after a year he was solemnly sacrificed.

Blood ritual. Often the priests killed the victim, ripping open the chest with a knife and tearing out the heart. Four priests, painted black, in black robes, grabbed the victim by the arms and legs and threw her onto the sacrificial stone. The fifth priest, clad in purple robes, used a sharp obsidian dagger to open her chest and tear out her heart with his hand, which he then threw at the foot of the statue of the god. Almost every day a feast of some god was celebrated, so human blood flowed continuously.

In some cases, the Aztecs limited themselves to bloodletting through the thorns of the maguey plant.

Fire victims. No less wild and terrible was the cult of the fire god Huehueotl.

The most important and significant achievements of the Aztecs

In honor of him, the priests kindled a huge fire in the temple and, having tied the prisoners of war, threw them into the fire and slowly burned them. Sometimes the Aztecs arranged "gladiator fights": the prisoner was tied to a sacrificial stone and given a wooden weapon in his hands, with which he had to defend himself from the attacks of many well-armed warriors.

IN special occasions women and children were sacrificed. Women who fell into a state of ecstasy after many hours of performing ritual dances turned into an offering to the goddess of the earth. Babies bought from impoverished parents were killed by priests with knives during a drought, hoping that the rain god Tlaloc would have mercy and give the fields the necessary moisture.

The Aztec state constantly had to worry about providing victims for the insatiable gods. During the solemn consecration of the temple of the god of war in Tenochtitlan, which took place in 1486, 20 thousand captives were killed, and at the coronation of one of the last rulers, Montezuma, 12 thousand soldiers died.

Myths in art and literature. Aztec mythology had a significant impact on art, literature, philosophy of this people. In honor of the gods, the Aztecs performed a variety of ritual dances, religious dramas and composed poetic hymns. Here is a fragment of one of them, addressed to the goddess of corn and fertility, Chicomecoatl:

O venerable goddess of the seven cobs! Rise, wake up! O our mother, you leave us today, You leave us orphans, You go to your country Tlalocan!

calendar stone

"Calendar Stone" At the end of the XV century. the main temple of the Aztec capital was decorated with an amazing stone disk - the “Calendar Stone” (“Stone of the Sun”). It was a grey-black basalt disk 3.66 m in diameter and weighing almost 24 tons. It depicted the signs of the five times (five Suns), which are described in legends. In the middle of the stone was the image of the Fifth Sun. There were concentric circles around him. One of them contains the signs of the twenty days of the Aztec calendar. In the next circle were the signs "turquoise" and "jade", meaning the words "jewel" and "sky". Behind them were symbols of stars that crossed the rays of the sun. Two large fiery snakes, symbolizing time, bordered the stone.

When the conquistadors invaded Mexico, the "Calendar Stone" was thrown from the top of the pyramid. The Europeans feared that, seeing him, the Indians would try to return to their former lives. So the stone was buried in the ground. By chance, an amazing creation of the Aztecs was discovered in the 18th century. Today, the "Calendar Stone" takes pride of place among the exhibits of the National Historical Museum in the capital of Mexico.

Aztecs and modern Mexico. The memory of the Aztecs and their legendary wanderings survived even after their beautiful capital was destroyed by the conquering conquistadors, and in its place arose modern city Mexico City. One of the most beautiful squares of the city is called the “Square of Three Cultures”. One part of it has been turned into a museum, where you can see the buildings of the Aztecs found by archaeologists.

An image of an eagle sitting on a cactus with a snake in its beak can be seen today on state emblem Mexican Republic. The highest order of this country is called the "Aztec Eagle" ("Aguila Azteca").

countries and peoples. Questions and answers Yu. V. Kukanova

Where did the ancient Aztecs live?

Where did the ancient Aztecs live?

The State of Mexico has a very ancient history, because it was here that the great Aztec empire once flourished.

Mexico is a mountainous country where only 13% of the territory is suitable for agriculture. The soils formed on the lava, however, are very fertile here. Where there is enough rain, there are plantations of tobacco, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, cotton and rubber.

In the nature of Mexico there is a place for both arid deserts and tropical sea coasts with world-famous ocean resorts such as Acapulco.

According to legend, the place for the settlement of the Aztecs was indicated by an eagle with a snake in its claws, sitting on a cactus. Now in this area is the capital of Mexico - the city of Mexico City.

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