Baikal - Cape Kotelnikovsky. Cross profiles of the water section of the river
Travel diary
Pechora 1999
Aleksandrov Nikolay.
e-mail:
Part 2.
The rain never stopped. It went all night and continued in the morning. It's already ten o'clock in the morning, and I can't get out of the tent. The mood is worse than ever. Am I stuck here for too long? Well, okay, something must be done, otherwise, from idleness, all sorts of thoughts begin to creep into my head, leading to the brink of panic and despair. First of all, we must try, after all, to kindle a fire, and then we'll see.
I am finishing these lines already at South Chigim-Kharut. To my surprise, I was able to build a fire quickly enough. Yes, and the rain weakened, from torrential - it turned into a drizzle. While preparing breakfast, inspiration appeared, the desire to go. Given that I have not only a time limit, but also products, I must strictly adhere to the traffic schedule. Moreover, there is no other way from here but forward - to Kozhim. This is the only way to survive and reach. After breakfast, I quickly break camp. Due to the incessant rain, I rent a tent under an awning. I take off the awning last, when everything is assembled and packed in a backpack.
As soon as I set off on my way, impassable thickets began, which immediately overturned liters of water on me. It turns out that to get out of here, you still have to go through a strip of bushes. It's good that yesterday the river was crossed on time. Today it is unrecognizable. The water rose a meter. A muddy stream, already familiar to me, rushes along the channel. The tops of the mountains are covered with clouds. The whole day is kind of twilight. Having passed the valley, I go up to the pass, it seems to be not so much shrouded in clouds. Here I must pass to the left of the plateau-like peak along the edge of the valley, which ends at the end with a sheer car. In this way, I again found myself at a dead end. It's too late to go back, and ahead is a steep, almost sheer snowfield of impressive size. I already stepped on it. On the right, along the way, I see a small rocky rise. The idea comes to me to use it to go upstairs. Needless to say, how my hands and legs trembled when I climbed these rocks. Harmless from below, in reality they proved to be a serious obstacle. Only now I realized how deadly it is to climb them with a heavy backpack on my back. There is no way to pull up. There are insignificant ledges around, which is difficult to grasp, and the backpack pulls back. There are wet, slippery stones underfoot, so every step can cost a life. Having crossed this rocky ledge, I realized how damn lucky I was, and decided to never again tempt fate in this way. And here is another gift of fate, this time a pleasant one. Ahead, a little further away, I saw the plague of reindeer herders. It was so unusual to see them on a bare, foggy, rocky plateau. Finally, people, otherwise I have not seen anyone for ten days, not a single living soul.
I was immediately invited to tea. It should be noted that these are the kindest, hospitable people. They themselves are from the village of Ovgort, on the Synya River. Before leaving, the women of the camp asked to take a picture of them, which I could not refuse them. There are four families here. They haven't seen people here yet this year. I was the first one.
Saying goodbye, I'm on my way. The terrain is very flat tundra. The passes are gentle. Quite quickly I reach the Laptopai River and cross it in the very upper reaches. Despite this, the river is quite full-flowing. Of course, there is no forest, and not only forests, not even bushes. Ahead is a huge herd of deer. Everything is clear, this is a herd of those reindeer herders from whom I am now leaving. Passing by it, I rise to the next pass. I catch myself thinking that I'm walking pretty fast. Ahead, gently rising up the mountain, a snowy plain, so a large section of the path has to go through the snow. Where I am going, everything is covered with heavy clouds lying on the ground, and after a while, I find myself in a dense fog. Guided by the compass, I continue to move along the smooth, seemingly endless tundra. Water flows right on its surface. In general, a real flood. The descent to Haruta turned out to be quite long, although not difficult. It was not without trouble. Twice I slipped, on a grassy slope that was wet and slippery from the water. And again I was lucky, no bruises, no scratches. The valley of the stream that I was walking through turned out to be quite difficult to pass. In the end, it turned into a narrow canyon with sheer walls. When it ended, I went out into the valley of Haruta and felt how cold the piercing wind was here. Still, because from the north it is completely open, and the wind blows through it. The forest is far away. Having reached the bush, I decide to set up camp. Despite the wind, we managed not only to set up a tent, but also to kindle a fire. And now, having already had dinner, I fall asleep in a tent, which is all shuddering from the heavy cold north wind. Fortunately, it is warm here when there is a piercing wind outside. It is simply impossible to survive here without it and an awning. When will the storm end? At least it didn't rain. After all, tomorrow I have a rather difficult transition, to the Wet Son.
It rained again at night. It still continues, preventing me from leaning out of the tent. It's already half past eleven, and I'm still sitting, waiting for "weather by the sea." But apparently it's useless. It is necessary to go out and kindle a fire, if possible, of course. And if not, then, gritting your teeth, turn off the camp and go like this, without hot food, dry. Okay, I'll try now. I will continue writing tonight.
The finale of today ended, one might say, nowhere better. I went out according to the schedule to Wet Son, and met the reindeer herders there, who gave me the most cordial welcome. If you don't get ahead of yourself, here's how the day unfolded.
I again showed skill or, figuratively speaking, miracles of heroism, having managed, nevertheless, to kindle a fire in the rain and wind, on open space. Just like yesterday, having removed the camp in the incessant rain, we set off on our way, driven by rain and wind. Realizing that it is better to go than to spend the night in this place again. At this thought, something terribly happened in my soul, the mere sight of him plunged me into despondency, or even to the brink of ... I don’t know what. I myself was surprised how I managed to spend the night here, and even with comfort.
Having oriented myself on the map, I begin to climb the pass, and to my surprise, instead of the expected steep pass, I find here a long climb along a swampy meadow. True, this is not encouraging, because going uphill through the swamp is harder than overcoming a steep climb along a rocky slope. Therefore, it is not surprising that the climb turned out to be quite difficult. The only consolation is that the pass is open and not overcast, despite the low cloudiness. An abundance of wild onions underfoot. For several days he has been "accompanying" me with his thickets, not only along the banks of the rivers, but also in the tundra on the mountain plateaus. But surprisingly, this is the first time I see him in such numbers. Here it is especially juicy, reaches a height of half a meter, in the garden it will not always grow like this. Approaching the valley of the river Pozhemayu, I saw how deep it was. Ahead, a panorama of mountain ranges opened up, on the tops of which snow fell. Visibility is very poor, dense low-hanging clouds literally crawl over the tops of the mountains.
The descent turned out to be quite steep, representing a grassy slope with alternating scree. However, this valley turned out to be much more comfortable. Steep rocky slopes, here overgrown with alder dwarf climbing almost to the top. The mountains, studded with rocky remnants, are quite picturesque. While walking along the valley, the rain stopped and I, having reached the extreme left tributary, taking advantage of this moment, stand for lunch.
The further way up the channel of this tributary led me to the canyon, along which I must go to the pass to the Wet Son. At the sight of this canyon, it immediately somehow becomes creepy. Rocky with steep walls, it rises quite steeply into the clouds. Its darkness is also depressing. On top of all that, it's getting darker. Although the nights here are bright, the darkness in the clouds is still palpable. Having risen to the plateau, I take out a compass and a map - I must not make a mistake, otherwise you can drop into the headwaters of the Badyavozh River, which also begins here on this plateau. Walking along the azimuth, I suddenly see how a rock emerges from the fog in front - a remnant of the original form. She looks like a crouching bear. Lonely sticking out on an absolutely flat plateau among the bare tundra, it surprises with its size and in the fog it seems somehow mysterious and mysterious, giving this place even more severity. Under it are a bunch of various amulets carved from deer antlers, folding knives, carved jewelry, as well as a full tin can of metal money from the stagnation period and small-caliber cartridges. Apparently, I am dealing with a place of sacrifice of the pagans, so I do not decide to take anything from here, so as not to cause anger in local residents these places. The cold wind and fog do not allow us to sit here for any length of time, so I go further, and a little lower I see a hollow filled with snow. Knowing that usually this is how rivers begin here, I check the direction. I don't like it, most likely it's Badyavozh. I decide to go along the plateau to the northwest in order to find a descent to the Son. I notice that I walk for quite a long time, but the plateau continues. There seems to be no end to this. Somehow all this is suspicious, because I should already be buried in a mountain that blocks the plateau, according to the map. Here I see herds of deer, a clear sign that there must be people somewhere nearby. Deciding to go down from the plateau, I head down and immediately stumble upon a rare gloomy canyon, which falls rather steeply. Its sides in many places are sheer walls. Walking on top along it, I go down lower and lower. Suddenly the clouds part, and a river valley appears before my eyes. The canyon runs perpendicular to it. I'm dumbfounded, the river flows the other way. Does that mean I'm on the western slope? But, looking at the map, I understand that I could not have time to go there. And indeed, going a little lower, I see that the river actually flows correctly. It just seemed to me in the fog that the slope of her channel was in the opposite direction. Here, it turns out, what an optical illusion here can be. Another hour of walking along the coast along the deer path and the valley of the Wet Son appeared ahead. Approaching it, I see the valley of the next pass, which I will climb tomorrow. You can clearly see how she, rising up, goes into the clouds. And here, about happiness! I see the plague on the shore.
Special mention should be made of this people. They are the friendliest people I have ever seen. They will always help any person who meets on their way, if he needs help. In our time, we often hear, they say, people are angry from such a bad life. They still, in spite of everything, have not lost their qualities at all. No one is as human, in the truest sense of the word, as they are. Very tactful in conversation, they are good interlocutors and always know how to keep the conversation going. Contrary to popular belief, these are literate, well-educated people, and on top of that, they are also brave and courageous, as they live in extreme conditions where an ordinary city dweller cannot survive. It is we, our society that has put them on the brink of extinction, driven them into a primitive way of life. Where many do not even have a home. Their home is the tent, with which they never part, wandering through the endless expanses of the mountain tundra. Now it has become very bad, they have ceased to be supplied with food, they do not pay salaries. For a year they cannot receive their hard-earned money for the delivered meat. Women here do men's work, although women's work is also overwhelmed. But how could it be otherwise, because someone still needs to set up and transport the tent, if the men in the distant pasture gather the herd. And it also happens that, on deer in forty-degree frost in the taiga, 60-80 kilometers to the village for a salary, and there they are told that they say that they can’t help, there is no money. So you have the same amount back later, and it's all for nothing. And that is not all. Here is the story they told me.
“One autumn, when all the men were in a distant pasture, a huge old bear got into the habit of walking in the camp, and extremely angry and ferocious. Feeling complete impunity, he kept the entire camp in fear for almost a week. The pogrom that he perpetrated there is difficult to describe. and other utensils, he did not pay attention. Frightened, they kindled a fire and sat without closing their eyes until the morning. He, as soon as pitch darkness fell, came close, growling angrily, plunging them into horror, and then began to smash everything in a row. This went on for several days. During this time, he destroyed all stocks of food, tore and broke all property, tore and damaged the chum. When women, everything exhausted from insomnia, decided to still go to bed, moving the sledges to the entrance to the tent, then, as if he had been waiting for this, he came close and began to break these sledges, trying to get in. In horror, they began to burn everything that came across. As a result, all the boots went to the torches. It is not known how all this would end. Luckily it was the last night. The next morning men came and, seeing them, he draped and did not appear again.
The transition from the Synya to the upper reaches of the Grubeyu (the left source of the Khulga) turned out to be extremely successful and simple. This was facilitated by the weather, which changed overnight. The wind dispersed the clouds and the sun came out in the morning. True, the north wind is cold, but what happiness, finally there are no mosquitoes. Why a simple transition? Yes, because the only serious climb from Sonja I overcame on the road, and not along the canyon. Thanks to the geologists, they have laid a road here that completely coincides with the direction of my route. From the pass you can see how it goes in a thin winding ribbon to the lake Belfry. The terrain, despite the fact that I am in the center of the Ural Range, is almost flat, slightly hilly tundra. In the middle of the way, the former base of geologists. It looks like a pretty nice house, but as soon as you look inside, a terrible sight appears before your eyes. Such a dump of garbage, iron and more ... it's hard to list, I see for the first time. Even in the rain I would not spend the night here, even though there is a stove.
I go to the lake along an absolutely flat tundra, it is all yellow. These are the buttercups in bloom, with which it is all strewn. If everything is even in front of me, then sharp-pointed mountain ranges rise to the right and left, having pronounced alpine outlines. 
And here is the lake. Surrounded by high mountain peaks, it seems to be at the bottom of a giant bowl. From here you can already see the top of Grubeiz, the goal of my tomorrow. One more gentle pass, and I set foot on the territory of the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug. Until now, I have been walking through the territory of the Yamalo-Nenets National District.
Going down to Grubey, I find a cozy clearing on the shore and set up camp. Although there is no forest here, there is plenty of firewood. Dry willow, which is abundant here, ignites instantly. While setting up camp, a man rode up on reindeer harnessed to sleds. He has two boys with him. He said that he followed them to the western slope, to another camp, where they were temporarily under the supervision of his relatives. It turns out that their camp is also not far from here, behind the pass, on the tributary of the Grubeya. Saying goodbye, the man leaves, I remain sitting by the fire. The fading day promises a good morning. Fog rises from the water, frost falls on the ground. This is the first such cold night.
Well, I'm not going anywhere today; I am going but only lightly on the ascent to Grubeiz. This is the highest peak in the area, at the junction of the Polar and Subpolar Urals. Its height is 1435 meters. The day today, as expected, is truly amazing. A light, slightly cool breeze is blowing, dispersing mosquitoes. The sun is shining. The climb to the top was easy. Before the mountain itself, it is necessary to overcome the plateau, and then there is a rather gentle ascent to the very top. The northwestern slope breaks rather steeply and is not accessible everywhere. The top is in the form of a small narrow ridge. On it are the remains of a small triangulation tower. 
From the top there is an amazing view of both the northern and southern parts of the Urals. In the north, the Voikar-Synya massif is clearly visible. In the south, the ridges of the Subpolar Urals are visible. Among them, the ridges of the Kozhim River region stand out clearly. Here and Wolverine, and Maldynyrd, and even Western Saledy. And of course, in all its glory, the People-Itinsky ridge, which has become a barrier between Europe and Asia. Another feature of the peak is that the western and eastern slopes can be seen quite well from it at the same time. There are not so many such peaks, and in this regard, this is a rather successful find. Visibility is exceptional, in every detail you can see the European slope and thin threads of rivers flowing from it, which, after gathering together into larger ones, go into the taiga, stretching to the horizon. In the east, the Siberian Plain is visible with its lakes and endless forests and swamps. An original spectacle, when, being here, on this peak, you see two parts of the world at the same time. In view of the fact that visiting the summit took me only four and a half hours, today has also become a day, that is, a day of rest. After lunch, I found a good hole in the river and decided to go fishing. This time, no luck with the fish, not a single bite. Apparently the north wind is acting on it, or it has not yet risen here. Fishing, in general, ended in failure. The rest of the time I just enjoyed the silence, the warm sunny day and the absence of midges. Finally he was gone, what a blessing! And, of course, equipment repair and laundry. It's evening now. Sitting by the fire, I continue to finish this diary, putting today's impressions on paper. There is an extraordinary silence. And again I am seized by the feeling that I am alone in the whole world, that apart from these silent mountain peaks and the river, monotonously rustling nearby, nothing else exists. I remember the first days of my journey, how long ago it seemed to be, as if an eternity had passed.
That, perhaps, is all for today. Although no, I almost forgot, the deer got lost today, apparently strayed from the herd. It can be seen that the home, is not at all afraid, lets in so that you can almost stroke it. Having chosen a small snowfield on a slope, he lay on it for a long time, not intending to leave. Apparently he was just as lonely as I was.
The past day has no special features. The transition to the Grubeya (Tykotlova tributary) turned out to be quite simple. The terrain here is in the central part of the Ural Range, near the watershed, absolutely flat tundra, easily passable in all directions. Whereas below, closer to the outskirts of the ridge, the terrain is completely opposite. Here, closer to the exit, the rivers cut through deep gorges and valleys in the plateau-like mountains. So it turns out that walking along the very central part of the Ural Range is much easier than along its outskirts or along its foot. Therefore, I reach the headwaters of the Khaima-yu River rather quickly. The further path to the ultimate goal of today, the Grubeya River, lies through the same plateau. The river valleys are separated from each other by gently sloping hills and, moving perpendicular to these valleys, I overcome a series of long descents and ascents. Having reached the Molonyavozh River, I go along it upstream. The river, cutting through a small mountain range, flows here in the canyon. On the other side of it, I find a perfectly flat plateau, coming close to the sheer steep slopes of the Narodo-Itinsky Ridge. From here you can see an amazing, I would say, fabulous view of the entire Narodo-Itinsky ridge. The spectacle, of course, is amazing, I have never seen anything like it. A huge rocky mountain range, studded with jagged ridges, shot up over the tundra plateaus of the Ural Range. The pointed rocky peaks have become an impenetrable barrier in which not a single pass is visible. The rivers flowing from there cut deeply into it with their valleys. The upper reaches of these rivers, which are located in rocky hard-to-reach gorges, are clearly visible. There are a large number of snowfields in the ridge, and, apparently, there are also glaciers. The same set of sheer cars. The slopes of many peaks break off vertically. All this makes him interesting object for mountain tourism.
The Grubeju river is a special river, one of the most beautiful in the area. Its deep canyon-shaped valley is extraordinarily picturesque. Not everywhere you can go down into it, because in many places it breaks off vertically. Its jagged slopes are studded everywhere with remnants. Down in the valley there is a forest, while at the top on the plateau there is bare tundra. The descent to it turned out to be quite long and difficult. Now I am admiring this spectacle already from the valley, having set up camp here and finishing the chores of the day by the fire. It is a pity that I see her very little, tomorrow I have to leave here.
Day Sixteen: June 14th.
The morning is as beautiful as ever. The sun is shining and a light breeze is blowing. By blowing through the tent, it creates an unusual freshness and pleasant coolness in it. Lying in a tent, I get from it incomparable pleasure. It hasn't been like this for a long time, I don't even want to get out. There are wonderful moments in life! And the outside is also lovely - there is not a single mosquito. Finally, this hell is over, but for how long? I stop writing for now and bask in the tent. Still, we need to get up and get ready to go, the schedule - there is a schedule, I will continue in the evening.
The transition to the Bolshaya Tykotlova River was completed quite successfully. I went out to the valley of the Petravozh River and walked along the peaks of the Narodo-Intinsky ridge, admiring once again their greatness. The path, I must say, was not difficult. The only place that gave me trouble was the watershed saddle between the Petravozh and Tykotlova rivers. Here, as before, in 1989, I again found myself in impassable thickets of dwarf birch and willow, and even with bumps and pits. All this very "piquant" set of obstacles reduced to zero the speed of advance through this area. Needless to say, how exhausted I was all this. Every two or three dozen meters I fell into the pits, stumbled, clung to the bushes. It is good that this did not last long, and soon I went out to the swamp, the path along which, after all this, seemed to me to be asphalt. 
From here you can see the stunning picturesque sources of Petravozh. They are hard to reach and harsh. Here is another pass of a rather high category of difficulty.
The valley of Bolshaya Tykotlovaya, like Malaya, is very picturesque. Even from the forest zone, on the way to the upper reaches, one can see how rocky peaks rise up in its upper reaches, even peaks are more correct. I go up along the river, approaching the upper border of the forest, and find here the place of my camp in 89. It was here that I warmed up and dried myself then. I even remember the date - August 31st. It was pouring rain and I was all frozen, wet and shivering through the wet forest along the river to its upper reaches. In this secluded clearing under these firs and a huge sprawling larch, I found shelter. It was here that I dried myself, warmed myself and provided myself with a warm and dry overnight stay in a tent. That's why this place is so dear to me. Since then, nothing has changed here, it's still the same wilderness. Trying to get as close as possible today to the pass, I move further along the valley. This is the guarantee of success, that tomorrow I will quickly overcome it. It scares me a little, it seems that it will be the highest pass on the entire route. Fabulously beautiful are the high jagged ridges of the mountain peaks surrounding me. Their slopes are studded with rocky towers. Many peaks are vertically standing stone slabs of enormous size. In many places, the slopes of mountain peaks are cut off by sheer karts. The size of the mountain peaks is striking, but the camera, unfortunately, cannot convey this. One of them in the form of a trapezoid - the most impressive in size, is cut in two, as if cut from top to bottom. From this, about three hundred meters deep, a canyon with steep walls, a small, but rather stormy river flows out and flows into Tykotlova. Such is the river Bolshaya Tykotlova in the upper reaches. 
Setting up the camp, I suddenly saw how the whole sky was blazing, engulfed in the fiery glow of the sunset. There was something magical and fabulous in all this. I have never seen anything like this in my life. Unable to take my eyes off, I looked at this fabulous sight - the red glow of the sunset over the jagged peaks of the mountains. Such an amazing evening was presented to me by the Bolshaya Tykotlova River.
Today is a decisive and responsible day - I go to Kozhim. The centuries-old wilderness gives way to a place that has been mastered by man for a long time, which is the basin of the Kozhim River, it remains only to cross the Narodno-Itinsky Ridge. Moving up the valley, I go to the pass. Its truth is not yet visible, although the forest zone ended a long time ago. Underfoot are small marshes, alternating with thickets of undersized willows. Gently turning to the left, the valley takes me further and further west, into the depths of the ridge. From time to time there is a series of ascents, after which again bushes and swamps. But here the terrain went higher. Every now and then you have to overcome the rocky canyons of the lateral tributaries. I notice that my right leg is starting to hurt. Moreover, the pain pierces the leg when you take a step, or just move it. Well, why would that be? And I still have to take the pass. I take painkillers, but it doesn't seem to work. The fact is that the pain manifests itself only when walking, and not constantly. And I notice that the sharper the movement, the stronger the pain. Its focus is somewhere in the hip joint. Can't figure out what happened to my leg? However, I notice that the most sharp and severe pain is when you get up after a long rest in a sitting position. In general, when you fully bend and unbend the joint. And so you can go, and even good. Gradually disperse, and the pain is almost not felt. Only when you step unsuccessfully does it remind you of yourself. Therefore, to my own surprise, I quickly take the pass, which unexpectedly turned out to be simple. It is a low, gently sloping saddle, squeezed on the sides by huge peaks with steep rocky slopes.
The path through the Salamew Valley turned out to be surprisingly easy and pleasant. Having driven down the snowfield, I cheerfully walked downhill along the absolutely flat and dry tundra. It’s hard to even think of a better path for your feet. If only they didn't get sick. Ahead you can already see the valley of the river Kozhim. Here it is the long-awaited moment - finally! Quite quickly, in just seventeen days, I reached him. It's hard to even believe, because when you look at the map you can see how great the distance traveled is. And yet, despite the difficulties, the route this time seemed to me easier and much shorter than it was in 1989. However, it is still unusual for me that I am already on Kozhim. Well, goodbye wilderness and hello civilization. And indeed, as soon as I approached the shore, I saw two people with fishing rods. Going into the knee-deep water in wanderings, they tried in vain to catch something. But here, unlike the eastern slope of the Urals, it is much more difficult to catch fish. As for Kozhim, the long-term gold mining has reduced its fish stocks to almost nothing, turning it into a dead river. Therefore, it is not surprising that they caught almost nothing. It turned out that they work in a survey party that drills to take samples for gold content. Based on the results of their research, the mining company "Terra" is working here. But now, in view of the lack of work, they have been sitting idle for a long time, in general, as well as without food, long forgotten by their superiors, they are guarding their camp, consisting of several beams. There they offered me to go spend the night, promising a bath. One of them turned out to be an old acquaintance of mine, we had already met once, when their party stood near Manaraga in 86. The reception, in general, was very warm. The bath, which was specially heated for me, turned out to be simply excellent. True, I was soaring for about two o'clock in the morning.
Today I rested and slept like never before. The tent is really good too. except for the fact that quite often you wake up with bedded sides. Therefore, this night on a soft bed was just a pleasure. Yes, and the dream was surprisingly strong today, I did not wake up even once. Maybe it's from the bath? They gave me a reception here, as if they were waiting for me. Despite the sore leg, I was still somewhat ahead of the planned movement schedule. With that in mind, I figured I could afford a day out. Therefore, I dedicate the whole day to rest, planning to arrange a bath again in the evening. Moreover, the place here is interesting and quite beautiful. The camp is located on a small clearing, next to the river Kozhim. An amazingly clear stream flows along the edge of the glade in a small forest. Right there, 20 meters from the stream, there is my beam, and a bathhouse is nearby. From the window I see the river and its opposite bank rising steeply. Its high slope is overgrown with larch forest, and above it is a bare tundra plateau. Three hundred meters from the camp there is a camp of reindeer herders, one can see a chum standing in a clearing. The day today is as ordered, amazingly warm and sunny. A light breeze disperses mosquitoes. However, now, when I write these lines, the sun has already set. Only the tops of the mountains are illuminated by the sun. I’m finishing this for now, dinner is waiting for me, and then a bath.
Further and further up the Kozhim the road takes me away. After parting with the hospitable hosts, I continue the route. A day of rest, a sauna twice - it was all just great. And most importantly, I replaced the boots, seeing what condition they were in, Alexei (my old friend from Inta) immediately offered me new ones. So there are no problems with shoes now.
The weather has been beautiful and sunny for almost a week now. Overhead clear sky. The nights, however, are slightly cool, because. north wind. But, such happiness, for many days there are no mosquitoes at all. They appear only in the evening, quickly disappearing with the sunset. Today I walk through the territory national park, which, after numerous debates, is finally approved by the ministry and has an official status. However, this does not prevent some organizations, the so-called joint venture and other "JSCs", from actively developing their activities here, causing irreparable damage to nature. The Kojima basin suffers from them due to the presence of gold in it. And today, walking along Kozhim, I see a clear example of this, the water flows muddy from sand and clay in the river. And, as I was told, this is repeated every two, three days. What can you do, they wash gold in the upper reaches. Well, at least the shores are preserved here. From the mouth of the Balbanyu, up, almost to the source, the banks of the Kozhim are untouched. It is possible that this is only for now. Now they wash on the side rivers, i.e. on its tributaries. For example, the Catalambiu tributary is generally turned upside down, figuratively speaking. At the same time, the Kuzpayu River, along which I walk, has not yet been touched. The only trace of human activity in its valley is the road laid here: smooth, dry, knurled. Walking along it is a pleasure. There is no forest in the valley, it rises from the place in the fall to Kozhim for only two kilometers. Further, the valley is a hilly tundra. The mountains here are low and very gentle, with smoothed peaks.
The sun is setting in the evening. Ahead, at the source of the Kuzpayu, I see how the road crosses a low pass. I know that on the other side are the upper reaches of the Nikolai-Shor stream. There I have planned parking for the night. The forest, of course, is not there, but if the road leads there, then there must be something, at least some abandoned village. And so it turned out. From the pass, I saw another island of civilization in the midst of this silence. Quite a lot of people turned out to be quite a lot of people in this village nestled comfortably in the sources of the stream. As it turned out, this is the settlement of the 105th expedition. It has now been bought by the Terra gold mining company and is being dismantled to be carried down six kilometers. There they will have a site for gold mining. Met well, quite hospitable. Dinner to the glory, the first, second and third. Here, in contrast to the Inta geological exploration, there is an abundance of products, and what is not there. It was hard not to pay attention to this after almost a month of a reduced camping ration. I spent the night in a beam on a folding bed. Despite the hospitality, nevertheless, a reproach was made, "what am I looking for here, what do I need?". Apparently, they do not understand that you can just travel. In addition, the information was confirmed that the former travel company "Onyx" is aiming, figuratively speaking, for gold, having decided that one cannot go far on tourism alone. So the rampant gold rush here, when all and sundry cling to gold, will finally undermine the ecosystem of the Kozhim basin, and there will be nothing to return to what it was. No amount of gold can restore everything that has been destroyed here.
In the morning I visited one of the adits. To feel how beautiful this world is, how beautiful the sunlight is, it turns out that you just need to go down underground for a while, which I did. Approximately 300 meters I went into the adit, never having managed to reach the end. You yourself, with a candle in your hands, go through these eerie tunnels underground labyrinths to understand and feel this terrible cold and terrible darkness of the corridors leaving no one knows where. How beautiful is this, just ordinary sunlight! We just don't think about it.
The pass to the Naroda River is quite gentle and I climb it quickly enough. A rather picturesque panorama opens up from the pass. The valley of the Naroda river is visible. Mount Big Chender comes close to it, breaking off with a sheer wall. The mountain itself is of impressive size and looks impressive, rising high above the deep valley of the Narda River. The rest of the peaks surrounding me are quite gentle and low. To my side, two mountains: North and South Blades. They really are like blades, for which they got their name. Their tops are pointed rocky ridges. You can also see Mount Narodnaya and the central peaks of the Research Ridge. The descent is not difficult, there is a trail along the ridge smoothly descending. Further, it leads to the Severnaya Naroda River along the valley of the stream that flows into it. There was nothing left of the base that used to be here, even the place was overgrown. Thickets are also roads, so you have to break through thick growth or go along the riverbed. But even so, the area here is much more fun. This is especially noticeable after the desert plateaus of Kuzpayu and Nikolai-Shor. Walking through the mixed forest along the river, I admire the panorama: the rocky Great Chender mountain, steeply plunging down. It’s a pity that I can’t capture it on film - the sun shines directly into the lens. As we moved down the river valley, a cedar appeared. There are many cones on the tops, which means that this year is fruitful. Having reached the confluence of the Northern People with the People, I take a lunch break. Judging by the map, there was very little left for me before the planned overnight stay (this is up to the upper border of the forest up the People). Turns out I was wrong when I thought that. At first, up to the tributary of the Karpin-Shor, the path was really good, I walked along the old overgrown road. Then, on the way to him, she disappeared, and a terrible jungle began. I broke through the thicket along the coast along tall grass, stones, bushes or simply windbreaks, and it seemed there was no end to them. The rocky peaks, topped with remnants, came close with their almost sheer slopes to the river, but I was no longer up to beauty. I have never seen such an impassable and cluttered area on the entire route. Indeed, such a set of obstacles is hard to even imagine, so it is not surprising that my movement speed dropped to zero here. And then, in addition to all these troubles, hordes of mosquitoes appeared. They were gone for a long time. The river bed here is a continuous seething rapid with a rather large slope. A powerful jet of water rushing at high speed among the huge boulders scattered in the channel is impressive. Suddenly, the threshold ended, and a swampy lowland opened ahead. From here, where the valley makes a sharp turn to the right, into the depths mountain range, according to the map, there is very little left to the upper border of the forest, only two kilometers. Here, too, there were some surprises. Suddenly, the terrain changed, some kind of floodplain began (you can’t call it otherwise) completely overgrown with willow. Breaking into several channels, the river flowed in thickets that were difficult to pass, so that one had to go straight along the channel. Darkness was already approaching, and there was no end to all this. Fortunately, the terrain began to gradually rise, the willow smoothly turned into larch woodlands, and after about 15 minutes, I found myself at the upper border of the forest. A little more, and I, having crossed the stream flowing out of the gorge on the right along the way, find myself in an open area. Ahead of me is a grandiose magnificent panorama. I see Mount Manciner rising above the valley. Its sharp peak rises very high above the Naroda valley. Breaking off steeply, it is inaccessible for climbing from here. I admire them for a long time, unable to take my eyes off this fabulous spectacle. 
Having gone a little further, I reach the place where the river bifurcates, and here, a kilometer from the upper border of the forest, I set up camp, finding a cozy platform on the shore, surrounded by rare shrubs. The place is quite open and blown by the wind, so there are no mosquitoes, which is what I need. This is my camp for two nights, tomorrow I'm going to climb Mount Yanchenko 1740 meters. After this ascent, it remains for me to go through the pass to the Manaraga River, and take a course to the Vangyr shelter. There I have a long-awaited meeting with friends and comrades, who are supposed to throw food for me on the second stage of my journey.
Today I visited Mount Yanchenko, one of the most beautiful peaks in the area. Being one of the most high peaks, it turned out to be quite inaccessible to everything. Even the approach to it is rather exhausting. He walks along solid kurumniks (heaps of stones) and constantly uphill. And so, 10 kilometers. When I reached the beginning of the ascent, I saw that there was nowhere to climb, because in the valley of the Naroda the mountain breaks everywhere with sheer cliffs. Then I climbed the pass in the hope of climbing the ridge. When I climbed the ridge, I saw that it was rather narrow and consisted of sharp, vertically set slabs sticking out to the top. Do I need to say what kind of work I had to overcome it. I almost turned back halfway through. there was practically nothing to cling to. After the ridge there was a steep climb. Here, outcrops of bedrocks followed, rising as rocky walls and ledges, and between them small gravel crawling underfoot. Worse lifting and not think of. I didn't expect this peak to be so hard to reach. But how I rejoiced when I reached it. 
The panorama that opens from above immediately makes you forget all the difficulties of the ascent. Nowhere is the entire Exploration Ridge so visible as from here. It is clearly seen how he bristled with impregnable peaks between Europe and Asia. Each peak is clearly visible. To the north, directly in front of me, is Mount Narodnaya. With its bulk, it closes the view to the north. To the south of me is the most inaccessible and highest, you can still add the most beautiful, the watershed of the Naroda and Kosyu rivers. He is impregnable on both sides. Its peaks with pointed feathers and peaks have become on the border of two parts of the world. Among them, one undoubtedly deserves special attention - Mount Manciner. She is very beautiful and inaccessible from Asia. It is quite possible that it is also impregnable from the European slope. Its pointed peak soared to a height of 1778 meters and simply captivates with its beauty. Also beautiful is the Parnuka area that can be seen further. The impregnable ridge is visible. There is also a large cluster of pointed peaks. In general, the entire area has alpine landforms. The "queen of the mountains" - Manaraga is clearly visible. She sits in a separate place, as if on a throne. There are no nearby peaks around it. Truly a queen. No less beautiful is the area north of Manaraga. There are also a large number of cars and glaciers. The peaks of the Bell Tower massif look like fantastic heaps, where the Chernov Bell Tower stands out quite strongly. And in the distance, on the horizon, a ridge is visible, which cannot be confused with anything. Well, of course it's Saber.
In general, all the difficulties of climbing to this peak were more than justified. Nowhere else have I seen such a fabulous panorama of the entire Subpolar Urals. On the descent, I found a crevice at the beginning of the ridge and went down it to the glacier, thus shortening the path. It should be noted that the glaciers here are small in size. At the moment they are under the snow. For comparison, I can give an example, the Hoffmann glacier in the Saber ridge is several times larger. The ascent, which took me eight hours both ways, is over. Removed valuable material. And now I'm tired, but happy, I'm finishing my day's chores by the fire, getting ready for bed. Tomorrow is a difficult day, I must not only overcome the pass, which is not so easy, but also reach Mount Manaragi. The weather is still amazing, and there are almost no mosquitoes. At least she stayed away. And so, in general, I'm fine. Feeling pretty good. My leg hurts a little, but I'm almost used to it and don't pay attention to it. The sugar was still running out, but the condensed milk remained, with which I now drink tea. This is how things stand for me so far.
Day twenty two: 20 July.
Day twenty-three: July 21st.
There is not much to say about these two days. I climbed the pass quite successfully yesterday, despite the bushes and stones. Still, the backpack is almost empty. Although I myself am surprised, where does the weight come from in it? After all, there is very little equipment, and it is quite light when you try it separately, and when you put it in a backpack, you already feel the weight. The main conclusion that I make when leaving the Naroda Valley is that there was no wilder and more difficult terrain on my route. And, nevertheless, I want to go back there again to plunge into this pristine wilderness again. The valley of the Manaragi River, which is located behind the pass, is the complete opposite. Tourist groups scurry along the well-packed trails there every day. And now, from the valley of the Naroda River, where there are no people at all, I cross over to the valley of the Manaragi River. 
The pass is indeed quite difficult and high. In addition, it is steeper from the side of the Manaragi River and has two steps. After passing one, I find myself on the shore of the lake. From here, the last descent goes down, and quite steep. A stream flows out of the lake, cascading down the rocky wall in cascades of waterfalls. It is not surprising that, despite such proximity to the beaten tourist paths, no one visits the Naroda Valley. 
But now the pass is behind and the legs themselves ran down the valley. Walking here is a pleasure, because, as I said, there is a well-filled path along the Manaragi River. Having reached the ravine of the shelter at the mouth of the Oleniy stream, I realized that everything was in order. Volodya Schreiber, who is bringing me food, has already passed here and is in front of me. Judging by the entry in the visitor's log of the shelter, he is most likely already on Vangyr. Continuing the path, I quickly slipped near Mount Manaraga, as I said, the beauties of the Urals. I decide to take it off, even though the sun has already set. I hardly have to count on a bright colorful shot, but I shoot anyway. Let it be useful for history.
The overnight stay on the bank of the Kosyu, not far from the mouth of the Yunkovozh, turned out to be slightly cool. Of course, the sky is clear! The sun, as always, wakes up early in the morning. And again I get on the path, because the desired moment is so close! I can't even believe that I'm almost there. I remember the day I got off the train at the Polyarny Ural station. How long ago was that. The finale of this part of the route seemed so far and inaccessible to me. And now, from minute to minute, I'm anxiously waiting for him. What will he be like? With every step I take, I get closer and closer to him. Here it is a familiar clearing ... Volodya, sitting by the fire surrounded by students, notices me rapidly approaching them, stands up to meet me, and we hug tightly.
Summary, or a few words about the first part of the transition
TRANS - URAL 94
And so, the first part of this most difficult, single, completely autonomous transition was completed. Next in line is the second part, which can be even more difficult. The state with which I completed this transition is not entirely satisfactory. I again have to go to the full calculation, with a weight of 40 kilograms, and my leg is not quite right. In addition, the boots (apparently my feet are not used to them) rubbed my calluses. So, despite the fact that everything is in order with the delivery of products and the schedule of movement is maintained up to the day, it is very difficult for me psychologically to continue the route further. And you have to, there is no other way. True, here at the first stage there will not be such desertion as it was at Polar Urals and that makes me happy. At the beginning, I'm waiting for the passage big island civilization of the Neroika base, and then a weather station and a gas pipeline route. Only after that I will plunge into the jungle to the end of the route. In the meantime, I rest, preparing for tomorrow. And so, the choice is made: By all means - go to the end! And I'm leaving for the unknown, not knowing yet, WHEN WILL MY WAY END?
The activity of channel flows consists of erosion of the earth's surface by water flow - erosion, transfer and accumulation of erosion products. The flow activity is determined primarily by its kinetic energy, described by the well-known formula mv 2 /2, where in this case m is the mass of water, v is the flow velocity. The flow velocity, in turn, depends on the slope of the channel. The main part of the energy is spent on the transfer of clastic material entering the channel, as well as on overcoming the resistance arising from the turbulence of the flow and its friction against the bottom and sides of the channel. Excess energy is spent on erosion, aimed at washing away the earth's surface with water flows. If the flow energy decreases, then a state of dynamic equilibrium occurs; a further decrease in energy, associated, for example, with the flattening of the channel, leads to the accumulation of transported material. Given that the magnitude of the energy of the water flow is different in its different parts, erosion and accumulation processes occur simultaneously in different parts of the same flow. The general slope of the stream channel is directed from the source to the mouth. In this regard, in the upper part of the valleys, where the slope is most significant, erosion usually prevails; in the middle reaches, it is replaced by a dynamic balance between erosion and accumulation; in the lower reaches, accumulation generally predominates. In the process of erosion, the equilibrium profile of the river is gradually developed, corresponding to the dynamic equilibrium in each section of the river valley.
The surface at which the water stream loses its strength and below which it cannot deepen its bed is called erosion basis. Behind the main basis of erosion the level of the World Ocean is conventionally taken. In addition to the main, stand out regional And local erosion bases. Regional bases of erosion are the level of the sea or lake into which a river flows, the level of large lowlands, etc. Any point in the channel can be a local basis - waterfalls, rapids, mouths of tributaries, etc.; these bases are constantly changing and determining erosion in the upstream area.
Among the streams are distinguished:
temporary streams,
constant streams - rivers.
Among temporary channel flows, temporary flows of ravines and temporary mountain flows stand out. Both types of streams do not have a permanent supply of groundwater and appear periodically during periods of rain and snowmelt.
Temporary streams of ravines. The formation of ravines begins with the formation erosion furrows– transitional forms from planar to linear erosion of the slope surface. Furrows arise due to the planar runoff of rain and melt water at the confluence of small streams in the lowest parts of the slope. Further erosion in the furrows leads to the formation of larger forms - pothole. Potholes are characterized by steep non-soddy sides and a longitudinal profile close to the slope profile. Due to the largest and fastest growing ruts, in the process of their deepening and expansion, ravines having a longitudinal profile different from the slope profile. The bottom of young ravines is uneven. With further deepening, the profile of the ravine gradually levels out due to the development of deep erosion, aimed at approaching the level of the erosion basis. The upper part of the ravine is a steep ledge, due to the erosion of which the ravine moves up the slope. This process of growth upstream of a stream is called regressive or backward erosion. The growth rate of ravines can be very high, reaching several meters per year; during the development of gullies that complicate the slopes of ravines, a branching ravine system may arise. As the ravine develops, its source approaches the watershed, and its mouth approaches the base of erosion, its longitudinal profile acquires a concave shape, and its transverse profile becomes V-shaped, with steep, unturfed slopes. Under conditions of a low rate of deepening, the ravine expands, it turns into beam- an erosional form characterized by the presence of a flat bottom and gentle slopes fixed by vegetation.
The water flow moving along the bottom of ravines and gullies during rains and melting of solid sediments carries fine detrital material. In the lower reaches of the ravine, where the energy of the flow decreases, gully fans.
Temporary mountain streams. The origin of temporary mountain streams is associated with heavy rains and intense melting of snow and glaciers. In the upper part of the mountain slopes, a system of converging ruts and gullies forms a drainage basin. Below is a runoff channel - a channel along which water moves. The significant slope of the channel determines the high energy of the flow, along the way it picks up a large amount of clastic material of various sizes. Saturation with clastic materials can turn water flow into mudflow- temporary destructive flow, overloaded with mud-stone material. In a mud-stone stream, which has a much higher density than water and high kinetic energy, even blocks up to several meters in size are able to move. Mudflows can also be formed during the collapse of large masses of detrital material into mountain rivers, the breakthrough of glacial or dammed lakes.
On the slopes of volcanoes, specific mud flows saturated with volcanic material can form - lahars. A lahar occurs when hot or cold volcanic material (respectively, hot and cold lahars) mixes with the waters of crater lakes, rivers, glaciers, or rainwater. High degree saturation with fine ash material determines the high density of the flux, capable of carrying large blocky material.
When entering the foothill plain, the speed of water or mud-stone flows decreases, the flows branch out, and the transported material is deposited, forming cone of temporary mountain stream in the form of a semicircle, the surface of which is inclined towards the foothill plain.
The clastic material carried by temporary channel flows is deposited at the base of ravines or runoff channels, forming, respectively, alluvial fans of ravines and alluvial fans of temporary mountain streams. Accumulations close in the mechanism of accumulation and features of deposits are dry, or subaerial deltas permanent mountain rivers - in areas with an arid climate, some mountain rivers, overflowing on the foothill plains, dry up due to evaporation and seepage into their own deposits. All deposits of estuarine drifts of temporary channel flows and deposits of subaerial deltas are called proluvium. Proluvial deposits are especially widespread at the foot of the mountains in an arid climate, where they compose thick alluvial fans and foothill plumes formed during their confluence.
The composition of the proluvial deposits varies from the top of the cone to its periphery from pebbles and crushed stone to sandy and clayey-silty sediments in the marginal parts. To the periphery of the cones (as the flow energy decreases), the size of the particles decreases and the degree of their sorting increases. The zonation of the structure and composition of sediments (most typical for dry deltas) makes it possible to distinguish three facies in the structure of proluvial cones.
1. Streaming, which is formed when the flow enters the foothill plain, where its speed sharply decreases and, as a result, the coarsest material is deposited. This facies is characterized by pebbles, boulder content and sandy-argillaceous aggregate (such rocks are called fanglomerates).
2. Fan, formed when a single flow splits into several branches. The streams slow down, most of them dry up as a result of infiltration into their own sediments and evaporation (it should be noted that intensive evaporation is facilitated not only by the climate, but also by the splitting of the stream into arms, which increases the evaporation area). Drying up, these slowly flowing streams successively downstream deposit sands, sandy loams, loams and clays.
3. Stagnant water, which is formed on the periphery of alluvial fans, where, due to temporary spills (during high waters and floods) and groundwater, temporary shallow lake-type reservoirs arise. This facies is characterized by silty-argillaceous, often gypsum and saline deposits.
The characteristic features of proluvium are:
- occurrence in the form of covers, the presence of traces of an extensive network of streams,
- poor sorting and roundness,
- oxidation,
- rarity of organic remains.
Proluvium facies
In the plains, proluvium includes deposits that make up the fans of large ravines and gullies. They are less thick and are composed of finer-grained material, mainly loams with gravel and sand.
Rivers are called natural water streams flowing in depressions worked out by them - channels.
Erosive activity of rivers
The erosional activity of the river is carried out in several different ways:
by means of river-borne sediments that act as an abrasive material on the bedrock of the river bed;
due to the dissolution of bed rocks (organic acids dissolved in water play an important role in this);
due to the hydraulic effect of water on the loose material of the bed (washing out of loose particles);
additional factors can be the destruction of the coast during the ice drift, thermal erosion processes, etc.
Erosion by river-borne debris
Erosion can be directed to deepening the bottom of the valley - bottom(or deep) erosion, or erosion of the banks and expansion of the valley - lateral erosion. These two types of erosion work together.
The intensity of deep erosion is determined primarily by the slope of the channel (and, accordingly, the energy of the flow). With the predominance of deep erosion, deep cuts with steep banks and a V-shaped section of the river valley are formed, the floodplain is developed fragmentarily (on islands and small areas near the convex banks of the meanders). In the relief, such areas are often represented deep canyons(in the Greater Caucasus, canyons in granites and limestones on the Belaya River, etc.)
The intensity of lateral erosion depends on the angle of approach of the stream to the shore. The rod is a line connecting the points of greatest speeds on the surface of the water. In straight sections, the core is usually located near the middle of the watercourse; in such conditions, lateral erosion does not appear. In winding sections, the core deviates towards one of the banks, which leads to compression of the flow and its “running” onto this bank, accompanied by erosion of the latter. The "pressing" of the flow to the shore causes the formation of a circulation current, the bottom branch of which is directed towards the opposite shore. Since the bottom layers are most saturated with clastic material (including those formed due to bank erosion), the material moves from the eroded bank to the opposite one, where it accumulates in the form of a near-channel shallow. The formation of a near-channel shallow leads to an even greater curvature of the channel and the deviation of the midstream towards the eroded coast, determining the direction of lateral and deep erosion. The highest rate of erosion of the coast is observed where the core of the stream is pressed against it. Upstream and downstream, there is a successive change of the zone of very strong erosion by strong, medium, weak, and, finally, the coast stops being eroded and turns into a near-river shallow. Thus, the bending of the channel leads to the formation of zones of acceleration and deceleration of the current alternating along the coast and transverse circulation directed from the concave to the convex coast.
Various conditions for the interaction of a river flow with river banks (according to R.S. Chalov):
a - the rod runs in the middle of the channel, the banks are not washed out;
b - the flow approaches the coast at an angle, causing compression of the jets and erosion of the coast;
an accumulative shallow is formed near the opposite shore
(h is the excess of the water level near the concave shore at the average level in this section).
According to the mechanism described above, in the process of bank erosion, sharp bends of the river valley are formed - meanders. Narrow "partitions" between meanders can be eroded during floods, which leads to the straightening of the riverbed and the formation of oxbow lakes. Staritsa- this is a closed reservoir, usually oblong, winding or horseshoe-shaped, formed as a result of the complete or partial separation of a section of the river from its former channel. The oxbow lakes can keep in touch with the river for some time, but gradually the entrances to them are covered with river sediments - they turn into oxbow lakes, and then into swamps or wet meadows.
Meander formation model
In the channel of meandering rivers, with a decrease in the slope of the channel and sinuosity, alluvial islands can appear. In wide areas of the valley, with relatively straight outlines of the channel and floodplain, a series of such islands can form, which leads to branching of the channel - its division into several streams. These islands move downstream, constantly changing shape.
The erosion rate is determined by a combination of a number of factors: the energy of the flow, the composition of the rocks of the bed, the development of vegetation, the intensity of technogenic impact, etc.
River erosion often leads to activation of other exogenous geological processes. Thus, intense deep erosion leads to the formation of canyons and V-shaped valleys with steep slopes, on which landslide and scree processes are actively manifested. Undermining of high banks, composed of rocks that are difficult to erode, during lateral erosion leads to the development of landslides, taluses and landslides.
Material is transported by rivers in several ways.
The largest particles (pebbles) are moved by dragging along the bottom or by rolling; particles of sandy dimension - saltation.
Sand transport by water flow
Fine particles of clayey and silty dimensions at a flow rate of more than 2 cm/s move in suspension.
in dissolved form.
All material transported in an undissolved state is called solid runoff. The volume of solid runoff of mountain rivers is much higher than that of flat rivers: mountain rivers can carry detrital material in an amount of up to 50-60 kg / m 3, while flat rivers - no more than 0.5 -1 kg / m 3.
The material carried by the river flow undergoes mechanical processing - rolls - due to friction against other particles and rocks of the bed.
Deposits of permanent channel flows (rivers, streams) are called alluvium. Alluvium is formed in various parts of the river valley. In accordance with this, three facies are distinguished: channel, floodplain and oxbow alluvium.
Channel alluvium usually represented by well-washed and sorted sands, gravels or pebbles with a characteristic cross-bedding. Its thickness can reach the first tens of meters, sometimes more.
The lower horizons of the channel alluvium lie on the eroded surface of the underlying bedrock; they are characterized by a coarser-grained composition, poor sorting, and indistinct cross-bedding. The formation of these horizons corresponds to the most initial stage of the formation of the river valley. Their thickness is usually small or they do not persist at all, because at the initial stage of the formation of the valley, when the alluvium is constantly moving, forming only temporary unstable accumulations that are washed away during floods and floods.
Up the section, the size of alluvial particles decreases and the degree of their sorting increases, and a distinct oblique bedding appears. The highest horizons, which form under the conditions of a near-channel shoal, are distinguished by a variety of textures - shallow oblique, oblique-wavy, wavy, which is associated with the formation of current ripples in shallow water conditions.
Sometimes interlayers with ripples are also found in the middle part of the channel alluvium - they form when the flow strength weakens (on the shallows).
The structural features of the channel alluvium section are also determined by the features of a particular river flow. In general, large lowland rivers are characterized by a more developed middle part of the channel alluvium and deposits of the near-channel shoal. In the sediments of mountain rivers, the alluvium is larger, textures typical of the lowest part of the plain alluvium predominate (which is associated with greater energy and turbulence of the flow).
old alluvium usually occurs in the form of lenses in the thickness of channel alluvium. The oxbow deposits are characterized by a silty-clayey or fine sandy composition (loams, sandy loams), saturation with organic matter, and thin horizontal layering (due to sedimentation from calm waters). In the lower part of the oxbow deposits, single cross-bedded series may be present, corresponding to periods of floods, when the oxbow lake again began to act as a channel channel.
floodplain alluvium overlies the channel and oxbow. Floodplain deposits are formed during periods of floods, when river waters, going beyond the channel, flood the river valley. The formation of floodplain alluvium is closely related to the river regime: it is well developed near lowland rivers in areas of humid temperate climate, less developed in arid regions, and weakly expressed near mountain rivers (having no developed floodplain). The thickness of floodplain deposits usually does not exceed a few meters.
The floodplain alluvium is represented by silty-argillaceous or silty deposits with horizontal layering. Often there are interlayers of soils formed in the period between floods.
Flood waters provoke the development of landslide processes and erosion of the banks. Therefore, the floodplain alluvium leaning against the eroded steep bank may contain inclusions of poorly rounded or non-rounded blocks of various sizes, which are buried scree and the products of collapse of the bedrock bank.
In aggregate, deposits of channel flows - proluvium and alluvium - according to the classification of E.V. Shantser, form fluvial group of deposits.
The processes of erosion and accumulation are closely interrelated and proceed together. Therefore, the nature of the emerging alluvium reflects the developmental features of the river valley, which in turn are determined by the regime of the water flow, the nature of the movements of the earth's crust, changes in relief, and other factors. When conditions change (including during the evolution of rivers), alluvial accumulation passes from one dynamic phase to another.
Instructive phase- this is the phase of predominant erosion, which manifests itself during the formation of a new valley, and is mainly associated with bottom erosion. Instrative alluvium accumulates in areas of flattening or widening of the channel, as well as when the water falls. It accumulates, lining the channel (it is often called lining- the term "instrumental" comes from lat. instratus - covered, thrown over). The alluvium of this phase is represented by coarse boulder-pebble and pebble material, which is characterized by poor sorting and low thickness.
Perstrative phase- the phase of dynamic equilibrium between the processes of erosion and accumulation. It manifests itself in rivers with a longitudinal profile close to the equilibrium profile - in this case, bottom erosion is weakly manifested and the channel long time wanders almost at the same level, producing lateral erosion and working out a flat bottom of the valley. At the same time, alluvium is deposited on the parts of the valley floor abandoned by the channel and its subsequent, sometimes multiple, washing and redeposition during the formation and death of meanders, lateral branches, etc. This phase usually replaces the instrutive phase. Perstrative alluvium is characterized by normal thickness and a two-membered structure - the lower horizon is composed of channel alluvium with lenses of oxbow alluvium, the upper horizon is represented by floodplain alluvium.
Constructive phase- phase of predominant accumulation. The alluvium of this phase is formed under conditions of active subsidence of the earth's crust or an increase in the supply of detrital material (due to climate change, etc.). With increased filling of the valley, the riverbed passes to ever higher levels in relation to the bed of the alluvial stratum. Older alluvial deposits are buried under new deposits laid on top of them ( covering alluvium). Constructive alluvium is characterized by increased thickness, multiple alternation of channel, oxbow and floodplain deposits in the section, i.e. members built according to the type of perstrative alluvium.
It should be emphasized that the considered dynamic phases can repeatedly replace each other both throughout the river valley due to changing hydrodynamic conditions and during the evolution of the valley.
For the classification of valleys, the shape of its cross section, the width of the bottom, the steepness of the sides and the nature of river deposits are used. According to these features, the following morphological types of river valleys are distinguished.
1. Triangular (V-shaped) valleys. During the formation of V-shaped valleys, the energy of the flow is spent only on their deepening - deep erosion dominates. Characterized by a narrow bottom and straight steep (usually more than 20 o) slopes, composed of bedrock. The valleys are mostly symmetrical, less often asymmetrical - one slope is gentle, sometimes at its base there is an accumulation of alluvium. The valleys are characterized by a significant slope, the longitudinal profile is undeveloped and stepped. The floodplain is undeveloped. Alluvium forms temporary accumulations, is characterized by extremely low roundness and poor sorting. The active manifestation of slope processes leads to a heap at the bottom of the valley of unrounded clastic material coming from the slopes. Water oozes in the thickness of loose material or in the form of streams.
2. Parabolic (U-shaped) valleys. Formed by a combination of processes of bottom and side erosion. Long slopes with a steepness of 10-25 o and a bottom with a width of 100-200 m are characteristic. Such valleys are usually worked out by powerful streams during the alternation of the stages of cutting and accumulation. As well as in V-shaped valleys, along with alluvium, slope accumulations play a significant role.
3. Trapezoidal valleys. They have relatively gentle slopes (10-20 o), the width varies from 200 m to 3 km or more. Characterized by increased thickness of alluvium and the presence of a complex of terraces. They were formed under conditions of alternating epochs of deepening and expansion of the bottoms with epochs of filling the valleys with thick layers of alluvial sediments.
4. Trough-shaped valleys. They have a wide bottom (several km), smoothly turning into accumulative terraces. Alluvium is characterized by high thicknesses. In the history of the development of the valley, the epochs of incision and accumulation repeatedly changed (with the duration of the latter predominating).
5. Planimorphic valleys. Wide valleys with a developed floodplain (many hundreds of meters wide - kilometers) and very gentle sides. channel major rivers in such valleys it is often divided into many branches. The thickness of alluvium is many tens - hundreds of meters. At the present stage of development, such valleys are in the stage of accumulation.
Having considered the dynamic phases of alluvium and the peculiarities of the morphology of river valleys, it is easy to see that any river during its existence goes through a number of stages, which can be conditionally called youth, maturity and old age.
At the formation stage, the river is dominated by bottom erosion, leading to the development of a V-shaped valley and the formation of rough, poorly sorted instrative alluvium. The longitudinal profile of the river valley at this stage is steep in the upper reaches, replete with irregularities and drops. As the valley develops, lateral erosion becomes more and more important, giving the valley a U-shaped section.
At the stage of maturity, the longitudinal profile of the river becomes leveled, tending to approach the erosion base, and lateral erosion intensifies due to meandering. Due to meandering, the valley expands, a floodplain is formed, and the cross section of the valley acquires a trapezoidal shape. The process of alluvium accumulation is actively going on, often alternating with periods of deepening and expansion of the valley.
At the stage of old age, an even greater expansion of the valley occurs. The longitudinal profile is close to the equilibrium profile, which leads to a decrease in the energy of the flow - the river cannot carry a large amount of clastic material, which leads to its sedimentation, causing silting of the channel. Accumulation processes are actively proceeding - all alluvium facies are formed. As a result, the channel is filled with sediments, the river gradually slows down the flow and overgrows.
The described stages of the evolution of the river valley, as a rule, do not form a linear sequence, but are interrupted at different stages by the processes of rejuvenation of the river. The rejuvenation of a river can be due to tectonic movements of the earth's crust, a change in the basis of erosion (lowering the level of the reservoir into which the river flows, etc.), climatic changes (increase in water consumption and flow energy), technogenic impact (descent of reservoirs, etc.) and leads to a change in the longitudinal profile of the river valley. When it changes, the energy of the flow increases, which leads to the activation of bottom erosion, aimed at developing a new profile. That is, the river again begins to deepen the valley, then, as it approaches the equilibrium profile, the processes of lateral erosion begin to dominate, a floodplain is formed, i.e. the river goes through its cycle of development again. And this process can be repeated many times.
The presence of stages of rejuvenation is reflected in education river terraces- step-like ledges in the sides of the river valley. In the structure of the terraces allocate playground– leveled terrace surface, rear seam- the junction of the site with the upper terrace or root slope, terrace slope And curb- the junction of the site and the slope of the terrace.
River terrace development scheme
The formation of terraces within the same river valley can occur repeatedly, which leads to the formation of a ladder of terraces above the floodplain, rising above each other in the side of the valley (it should be added that the terraces are not always clearly expressed in the relief and their identification requires special geomorphological studies). The highest terrace is the oldest, the lowest is the youngest (the first terrace above the floodplain - the terraces are assigned numbers according to their location from bottom to top). The height of the terrace is the excess of its surface above the low water level in the river.
Among the river terraces, erosional, erosion-accumulative and accumulative are distinguished.
erosion terraces(or sculptural terraces, erosion terraces) - terraces worked out by a river flow in bedrock. They are most characteristic of mountain rivers, where tectonic movements are actively manifested, leading to frequent changes in the longitudinal profile of the river.
Erosion-accumulative(or socle) - terraces, the lower part of which is composed of bedrock (socle), and the upper part is composed of alluvial deposits.
Accumulative terraces- routes completely composed of alluvial deposits. Accumulative terraces are widespread within low platform plains, as well as in intermountain and foothill troughs. They are characteristic of gutter-shaped and planimorphic valleys characterized by significant alluvium thicknesses.
In the mouth part, the river flow reaches the level of the erosion base, loses energy and deposits the transported material. The specificity of sedimentation and structural features in the mouth part is determined by a combination of a number of factors, among which the most important are: the amount of material carried by the river, the flow of water in the river and its change over time, dynamics sea waters and the nature of tectonic movements.
Typical forms of estuarine parts of rivers are deltas, estuaries and estuaries.
Delta are lowlands composed of river sediments in the lower reaches of the rivers, cut through by a network of branches and channels. The name "delta" comes from the capital letter of the Greek alphabet delta, by the similarity with which it was given in antiquity to the triangular delta of the river. Nile. Essentially, deltas are alluvial fans of rivers. In the mouth part, the river flow “unloads” the transported material (partially in the mouth part, partly in the coastal part of the sea). Gradually, the mouth part is covered with sediment, blocking the path of the water flow. As a result, new channels (called channels and branches) are formed, washed out in the deposits brought earlier. Then, in the mouth part of each branch, the accumulation of material again occurs, and the process is repeated, which determines the gradual protrusion of the delta into the sea. At the same time, individual channels separate, turn into lakes and then fall asleep or swamp.
In addition to alluvial deposits, marine deposits (formed in the underwater part of the delta when sections of the delta are flooded with surge waters, etc.), eolian (formed when sediments are overwhelmed), lacustrine and swamp deposits are widely developed within deltas. Thus, deltas are complex dynamic systems formed under the influence of various geological processes.
Favorable conditions for the rapid growth of the delta are: the abundance of sediments brought by the river, tectonic uplift of the coastal territory, lowering of the level of the reservoir, the position of the mouth at the top of the bay or in the lagoon (blocked deltas), as well as the shallowness of the basin into which the river flows. The formation of a delta is prevented by strong tidal, surge currents and alongshore currents, as well as tectonic subsidence of the coastal zone (the rate of which is higher than the rate of precipitation accumulation) and a rapid increase in the level of the reservoir.
Modern deltas occupy about 9% of the total length of the coasts of the World Ocean and annually accumulate 18.5 billion tons of loose products, which is 67% of all terrigenous sediments entering the World Ocean.
The Volga, Don, Lena, Mississippi, Ganges and many other rivers have developed deltas, the Amazon delta reaches a huge size (about 100,000 km 2, which is more than 5 times the area of the Volga delta).
Estuaries (from lat. aestuarium - a flooded mouth of a river) are funnel-shaped bays protruding into the mouth of the river. The factors that determine the formation of estuaries are: the removal of sediments deposited by the river by sea currents or tidal waves, the great depth of the sea, the rapid subsidence of the coastal zone; in such cases, even with a large removal of sediments, their deposition in the mouth section does not occur.
Mouths in the form of estuaries have the Yenisei, the Ob, the Seine, the Thames and many other rivers.
Estuaries (from the Greek limen - harbor, bay) are called the mouth parts of the rivers flooded by the waters of tidal seas. The formation of estuaries is connected with the flooding of the valleys of lowland rivers and gullies by the sea as a result of the subsidence of the coastal parts of the land. Usually, estuaries have a winding outline and low shores, which is associated with the inheritance of the relief and the absence of significant coastal activity of the sea. There are estuaries open towards the sea (lips) and closed ones, completely separated from the sea by a spit or having a connection with it through a narrow strait (girla).
Usually fine-grained sands, silts and clays are deposited in estuaries, and often also organic matter, giving rise to deposits of oil shale, coal, oil. With a small influx of fresh water from the mainland and an arid climate, the waters of the estuaries are highly saline and salts are deposited in them or salt-containing silt deposits - mud accumulate.
Limans are well expressed in the coastal parts of the Black and Azov Seas.
From the parking lot at the confluence of the left and right sources of the river. Keltor (left - a stream with
ice. Kultor V., right - a stream from the circus per. Tourists of Tataria, Novokarakolsky) we pass to the right bank of the latter (on stones, a width of about 5 m) and thus find ourselves on the right bank of the river. Cultor. The crossing took 5 minutes. We begin our descent along the river valley. Cultor. We go to the CVD along the path, along the moraine deposits (large scree) along the right bank of the river. The trail is marked with tours. Almost immediately, a sharp drop in height begins (the steepness is about 150, locally - up to 300). In 40 minutes we reach the end of the moraine deposits and go out to a small grassy area on the right bank of the river, from which in 15 minutes we descend along a steep (up to 350) grassy slope (along the path) to the confluence of the river. Cultor and Cultor Zap. (left tributary of the river Kultor from the circus lane Epyura, Ontor). We continue the descent along the grassy path with separate exits of large scree on the right bank of the river. Cultor (Photo 100). Immediately after the confluence, the valley forms a step (up to 250), then its slope decreases to 50, despite the swampy areas found in abundance, it is easy to find a parking lot on this section of the path. In 50 minutes after the confluence, we go out to a wide flood of the river, we pass it in 20 minutes, in another 15 minutes we go to the mouth of the stream - the right tributary of the river. Cultor. We cross it over stones (width is about 3 m), exactly like the next right tributary, which flows into the river 100 m below (it takes 15 minutes to cross 2 streams and move from one to another). After the confluence of the second stream, the character of the right bank of the river changes - a large scree pressure begins (the steepness of the slope to the river is up to 300, the length is 500-700 m), we pass it, adhering to the path (it is marked with tours) for 40 minutes, we enter the forest zone. Then we go down the river valley. Kultor along a good path through the forest on the right bank of the river, we periodically meet good places for parking. The valley gradually turns to the west. After 50 minutes of movement, we reach a good bridge across the river. Kultor, about 1 km above its confluence with the river. Ontor. We cross the bridge to the left bank of the river. Cultor. We continue the descent to the confluence of the rivers Kultor and Ontor along the path. The trail first climbs high enough along the left side of the river valley. Kultor, slightly cutting off the end of the spur separating the valleys of the river. Kultor and Ontor, then abruptly descends to the confluence of the rivers (a grassy forested slope with a steepness of up to 350). For 40 minutes from the bridge we go down to the river. Ontor, a little higher than its confluence with the river. Cultor. We pass to the left bank of the river. Ontor over a good bridge and we find ourselves on a good dirt road. We go down the river valley. Ontor (after the confluence with the Kultor river, this is called the valley of the Karakol river) along its left bank (Photo 101). We go along a dirt road to the CVD and in 30 minutes we go to the Karakol alpine camp (Photo 102). We stop at the camp clearing, the parking is paid, but the prices are reasonable (10 soms per tent per night).
Region: Caucasus
Subdistrict: Western Caucasus
Location; Teberda Ridge
Borders: r. Muhu (n. Teberda) - r. Aksaut (n. Red Karachay)
Biking for the first time: 1994, cycling trip 5 class. groups of the Orion cycling club,
hands V. Komochkov
2. Characteristics of the difficulty of the obstacle
The total length of the ascent (passing from the east) - 12.4 km
including:
rocky-gravel mountain road -9.7 km
horse trail - 2.7 km
Road surface coefficient Kpk-1.49
Absolute altitude:
the beginning of the ascent (Teberda settlement) - 1288 m
saddles of the pass - 2764 m
the end of the descent (p. Krasny Karachay) - 1500 m
Absolute altitude coefficient Кв=1.45 Total climb - 1476 m Climb coefficient Knv-2.03
Steepness (slope) on the rise (average) - 11.9%
Slope coefficient Kkr-1.49
Obstacle difficulty scoring
CT \u003d Kpc * Kv * Knv * Kcr \u003d 6.54
Total travel time
rise - 6 h. 20 m.
descent - 3 h. 30 m.
3. Altitude profile of the obstacle
4. Description of the passage
The road to the pass starts right from the village of Teberda, enters the gorge of the river. Muhu and goes first through a dense forest along the right bank of the river. At the very beginning of the ascent, there are the remains of a broken barrier, apparently, the former cordon of the reserve, because the right bank of the river is the territory of the reserve. Further, no traces of cordons are visible. The road is quite passable, the surface is soil-stony. For 2.5 km to the bridge across the river, the slope is relatively small - 6.5%. Then the road passes over the bridge to the left bank and climbs the slope steeply, the river remains far below, the steepness of the ascent is 12.1%, the length of this section is 2.7 km. This is followed by a gentler section along the slope, about 1 km long, with a steepness of 8.5%. Then a brook crosses the road, after it - again a steep ascent, 2 km long, 13.3% steepness. The ascent leads to a dilapidated structure of unknown purpose, after which a more gentle (8.4%, 400 m) again goes to the river and steeply (20%) for 1 km rises to the kosh, passing to the right bank. The cat's road ends. The trail goes along the river for another 1 km (9.9%) then leaves the river and climbs steeply up the grassy slope to the pass (2 km, 21%).
The saddle of the pass is wide, grassy, there is a dilapidated tour. The descent from the pass goes along a steep scree, then along the right slope of the gorge and leads to the Malaya Marka River, the length of this section is 1.3 km, the slope is 34.4%. Almost immediately, the trail enters a pine forest and continues down the slope of the gorge through the forest to the river. Bolshaya Marka (2.2 km, 9.9%), and after another 500 m it enters a vast clearing at the confluence of the M. and B. Marka rivers. The trail continues along the banks of the river. B. Mark, several times moving from coast to coast, to the village of Krasny Karachay. Everywhere at the crossings there are good bridges. The length of this section is 6 km, the slope is 9%.
5. Additional information
According to the classification of mountain tourists, the pass is n / a, there are no local obstacles during the ascent and descent. Autonomy is low, when passing from the east - the village. Teberda, with opposite side- uninhabited village Red Karachay, there are people there in the summer, although there is no shop, post office and other institutions.
6. Sources of information
I. Protopopov. Report on a bike trip 5 k.s. in the Caucasus, 2000.
V. Komochkov. Report on a bike trip 5 k.s. in the Caucasus, 1994.
I. Humble. Report on a mountain hike 2 k.s. for the Western Caucasus, 1995
Pavel Protopopov, 400078, Volgograd, PO box 2009, e-mail: bcl@ mail. en
Annex 7 (Form No. 6 Tour). (section 1 of the Regulations)
Tourist and Sports Union of Russia Federation of Sports Tourism of Russia
on the offset of the passage of the tourist sports route
A detailed thread of the route indicating the start, end point and defining cat. sl. obstacles. For water routes, also indicate the name of the river, the water level, what obstacles are not passed
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Tortuosity is typical for lowland and semi-mountain rivers that are in the stage of incision or a stable state of the longitudinal profile. Bends are less typical for rivers in the stage of accumulation. Bends (meanders) are best developed near flat rivers with clay or loamy banks, bearing a lot of sediment.
Full bend (Fig. 55) consists of two bends - knees within each tribe are distinguished peak And bend wings. The projection of the bend onto the longitudinal axis of the valley is called her step L. Allocate also bend radius r. The reciprocal of the radius is called curvature of the bend 1/r, and the distance from the top of the knee to the longitudinal axis of the valley - deflection h land space inside the bend - spur. Double the deflection is meandering belt width B>. The ratio of the length of the bend, measured along the axis of the channel, to its projection on the longitudinal axis of the valley is called tortuosity coefficient. On average, the sinuosity coefficient of meandering rivers is 1.5, in some areas up to 2 or more.
In terms of bends, they can have a different shape. In lowland rivers, most often segment bends, formed by arcs of a circle (Fig. 56, L). Significantly common sinusoidal(Fig. 56, B)(mainly on semi-mountain rivers) and omega-shaped(Fig. 56, D) bends (on small flat rivers). Omego-
If h(deflection arrow) is determined along the axis of the channel, then the width of the belt
meandering can be calculated by the following dependence- B = 2h + b Where b -
channel width. ",■>"<-
■ visible bends, the spur is pinched at the base of the wings, where the neck of the bend is formed. Less common chest(Fig. 56, IN) And overwhelmed(Fig. 56, D) bends. Not uncommon complex bends(Fig. 56, E), with secondary curves.
There are also primary and secondary bends. Primary bends due to the relief of the earth's surface on which the watercourse was laid. Secondary bends formed as a result of the work of the watercourse itself. Primary meanders differ from secondary meanders by the irregularity of the dimensions of the radii of curvature and, in general, by the irregularity of the bends of the watercourse. A striking example of a primary bend is the Samara Luka on the Volga, enveloping the Zhiguli Mountains.
There are three types of secondary bends: forced, free and incised.
Forced meanders are formed as a result of the deviation of the river flow channel by some obstacle: the outcrop of rocks at the bottom of the valley, the alluvial cones of lateral tributaries, etc. Forced meanders are characterized by uneven dimensions and the absence of patterns in their configuration and spatial distribution.
free, or wandering, meanders are created by the river itself among the loose alluvial sediments that make up the floodplain of the river. The valley slopes and terraces do not participate in the formation of these meanders. The shape, size and dynamics of free bends are not due to random reasons, but are determined by the water content and the regime of the river. So, the radius of curvature of free bends is proportional to the width of the channel: r=f(b), and the width of the channel, as is known, is directly dependent on the flow of water. There is a certain relationship between the width of the channel and the pitch of the meander: the ratio of the pitch of the meander to the width of the channel usually ranges from 6 to 12. Observations show that small (shallow) and slowly flowing (plain) rivers have a greater curvature of the meanders, and the width of the meandering belt is smaller than that of large, high-water and fast-flowing rivers. Thus, each watercourse has a certain limiting radius of curvature of the bends and the width of the meandering belt, which depends on the water content and speed of the current.
The banks of free bends are subjected to directional deformations and are displaced in the longitudinal and transverse directions relative to the axis of the river valley. The displacement rates of the bends are directly dependent on the water flow and slope and inversely on the height of the banks and some other factors. In the process of synchronous movements in the longitudinal and transverse directions, the shape of free meanders can undergo significant changes. The reasons for such changes are discussed below when describing the formation of the floodplain.
Embedded meanders are formed from free as a result of intense deep erosion. Unlike free meanders, the spurs of incised meanders are not flooded in flood water, and in each
much less than within the low-water riverbed. They do not interfere with the appearance of vegetation on the shallows, which, in turn, begins to resist the movement of hollow waters and reduce their speed. Within the flooded shoal, conditions are created that favor the settling of suspended (clay) particles from the water, especially in areas remote from the core. Over time, the sandy deposits of the widening near-channel shoal turn out to be overlain by finer material (loam, sandy loam); the near-channel shallow gradually turns into a floodplain (Fig. 59).
As can be seen from the process of floodplain formation, various types of alluvial deposits take part in its structure. At the base, on contact with bedrock, lies pearly(perluo - I wash), represented by coarse-clastic boulder or pebble material, resulting from the washing of sediments that make up the washed-out concave coast with water. Coarse-detrital material can alternate with lenses of silt, from pools patched at the bottom during low water periods. Above perluvi> lies channel alluvium, represented mainly by sands, often with the inclusion of pebbles and gravel and characterized, as a rule, by well-pronounced cross-bedding. Lies even higher floodplain alluvium, consisting mainly of sandy loams and loams with indistinct horizontal or slightly undulating bedding.
Hitting a concave bank, the water in the river deviates from it, passes downstream to the opposite bank and undermines
vomits him. Therefore, in the river valley there is an alternation of concave (washed) and convex (washed) banks.
As noted above, the river bends move not only towards the concave bank, but also downstream. As a result
Protrusions of the root bere-. hectares are gradually cut off, a wide box-shaped valley is formed, the width of which is equal to the width of the meandering belt characteristic of a particular river (Fig. 60). The channel in such a valley occupies a small space. Most of the flat bottom of the valley is occupied by a floodplain, within which the river forms free meanders. As mentioned above, as a result of synchronous displacements of the bends in the longitudinal and transverse directions, they can undergo complex changes in their shape. So, if in the process of displacement in the longitudinal direction the lower wing of the bend falls into the region
erosion-resistant rocks or the height of the coast becomes high, then the movement of this knee slows down. The upper knee, being in the loose sediments of the floodplain, continues to move at the same speed. The bend turns from segmental to sinusoidal, close to triangular. The latter dies over time due to the grinding of the spur and closer
Nia wings (Fig. 61, L). If the process of lateral displacement predominates, the segmental bend, due to the erosion of the concave banks, turns into an omega-shaped one (Fig. 61.5). Necks of steep bends can be eroded from both sides. As a result, the neck becomes so narrow that it can be broken during the flood. Due to a sharp increase in the slope in the resulting breakthrough, the channel is rapidly deepening here, and the main course of the river passes here. The upper part of the broken bend loop
quickly becomes shallow as a result of sediment accumulation, the rest remains for a number of years, first in the form backwater(isolated from the low-water flow only in the upper part), and then in the form old women- floodplain lake. A special type of alluvial deposits is formed in the oxbow lakes - old alluvium. Since the sedimentation of material in oxbow lakes during most of the year occurs in a calm environment, oxbow alluvium is composed mainly of silts and clays and is characterized by thin horizontal layering. Among the clays and silts there are sand lenses formed during the passage of hollow waters through the oxbow lake. At the top of ancient deposits, peat often occurs, indicating the swampy stage of development of the oxbow lake.
So, the formation of the floodplain and the various types of alluvium that make it up in meandering rivers is the result of the displacement of meanders. The rudimentary floodplain of such rivers is a near-channel shoal, which is formed near a convex washed-out bank. A similar process of formation of the floodplain and alluvial deposits is also observed in furking (crushing into branches) rivers. The rudimentary floodplain of such rivers is the middle, which, gradually growing and turning into a floodplain, contributes to the erosion and retreat of both banks simultaneously.
The described process of formation and correlation of various types of alluvial deposits are typical for lowland rivers. The floodplains of mountain rivers are still poorly studied. Usually they are narrower than in the valleys of lowland rivers. Floodplain and oxbow alluvium is practically absent in them. Channel alluvium is often represented
a thin stratum of large-pebble sediments and boulders lying on a basement of bedrock or on large blocks that have rolled down from mountain slopes.
The thickness of the alluvial deposits of the floodplains is different, but it cannot exceed the height difference between the most deep place in the river and the maximum flood level, if extraneous processes do not interfere with the work of the river. This power of alluvium is called normal. The locally observed increase (compared to normal) in the thickness of alluvium may indicate increased accumulation due, for example, to the tectonic subsidence of the area through which the river flows, decreasing
nie- on the intensive incision of the river during tectonic uplifts. There may, of course, be other reasons for the abnormal thickness of alluvium.
The formed floodplains are not dead landforms. In the process of displacement of free meanders, they undergo significant changes, and the alluvial material composing them is repeatedly redeposited. The change in the floodplain and its relief proceeds especially intensively during high floods, when a single current is established on the floodplain and in the channel.
Let us imagine a floodplain array encircled by a gently sloping arc of a riverbed (Fig. 62). Crossing the flooded massif of choima, the stream erodes the ledge in its upper part. Part of the material formed during the erosion of the ledge is brought to the surface of the floodplain, while the other part remains in the channel and is transported along the edge of the floodplain massif. At the contact between the current descending from the floodplain and the current flowing along the main channel, an accumulative formation is formed.
Ma - braid, which separates from the stream backwater, often observed in the lower reaches of floodplain massifs.
The sediments brought by the stream to the floodplain accumulate on its surface. The accumulation is most intense in the area adjacent to the river bed, since the speed of the stream jets passing from the channel to the floodplain sharply decreases here due to a decrease in depth and an increase in bottom roughness. Subsequently, the flow rates become almost constant, the intensity of accumulation in the central part of the floodplain massif decreases, and the size of the settled sediments decreases. The flow brings only small (silty and clayey) particles to the rear part of the floodplain. The difference in the intensity of accumulation and the size of the settling particles leads to the fact that the part of the floodplain adjacent to the channel is the most elevated. After the recession of the flood, one can often find an accumulation of freshly deposited large sediments here, with a thickness of several centimeters to several decimeters. The repetition of the process leads to the formation in this part of the floodplain river bank, in some cases quite clearly expressed in relief.
From the riverbank, the surface of the floodplain slightly decreases towards the center of the floodplain massif, which is characterized by a smoothed relief. The lowest is the part of the floodplain adjacent to the bedrock bank of the river or to the ledge of the terrace above the floodplain. The low position in the relief and the heavy mechanical composition of the sediments of this part of the floodplain contribute to swamping. In accordance with the often observed differences in the heights of individual sections of the floodplain and the nature of the sediments composing them, the floodplain is usually divided into three parts: 1) along the riverbed, 2) central and 3) near the terrace (Fig. 62),
In addition to the described landforms that arise in the process of floodplain formation (near-channel "swells, oxbow lakes, manes, etc.), its surface can be complicated by a complex of landforms associated both with the activity of the river and with the activity of other exogenous agents. For example, after ice drift on rivers at high water levels, the floodplain surface may turn out to be cut by deep furrows, single stones, melted from the ice. On rivers, the riverbanks and riverbanks of which are composed of well-sorted sand and are not fixed by vegetation, big influence wind influences the formation of the mesorelief of the floodplain. In the period of summer and sometimes winter low water on the floodplain, dunes are formed from sandy deposits of swells and shoals, the height of which can reach several meters, sometimes 15-20 m. As a result of the movement of dunes into the depths of the floodplain and the emergence of new dunes in place of near-channel swells and shoals, whole systems of eolian ridges are formed, the sharpness and outlines of which are gradually lost in the direction from the near-channel to the central floodplain. Most high dunes cease to fill in during the flood and protrude above the water in the form of randomly located islands
wow. In the rear part of the floodplain, the surface of the floodplain can be complicated by superimposed alluvial fans of temporary streams or channels of the lower sections of small tributaries of the river, which, having reached the floodplain, deviate from their original direction and follow the backwater or backwater.
The morphology of the floodplain can be complicated by isolated hills that are not flooded during the flood, formed as a result of the breakthrough of the neck of incised meanders and the separation of a section of the root slope of the valley or the terrace above the floodplain, which was part of the spur. Such elevated "islands" among the floodplain are called remnants.
The ridged relief of the floodplain does not remain unchanged either. As a result of the activity of slope processes and uneven accumulation of floodplain alluvium, the ridge relief is leveled and the surface of the floodplain changes over time.
Differences in the relief and structure of the floodplains of lowland rivers form the basis of their classifications.
So, according to the nature of the relief, they distinguish: segmented, parallel-ridged and bunded types of floodplains.
Segment floodplains characteristic of meandering rivers. Their relief is considered in sufficient detail when describing the formation of the floodplain as one of the main elements of the river valley. Let us only emphasize that the arched ridges and inter-ridge depressions separating them (dry or occupied by lakes) are the result of the process of reforming the meanders and wandering of the channel along the bottom of the valley.
Parallel ridge floodplains usually occur near large rivers with a large width of the valley and are due to the tendency of the river to move all the time in side of one of the slopes. Such a tendency can be caused in some cases by the influence of the Coriolis force, in others - by tectonic movements. A feature of the relief of parallel-ridge floodplains is the presence of long longitudinal (parallel to the channel) ridges and inter-ridge depressions separating them. Chains of lakes elongated along the valley are sometimes located along the intermountain hollows. An example of a parallel crested floodplain is the section of the floodplain of the Oka River below the city of Ryazan. The width of the ridges developed here reaches 200 m, the relative height is 6-8 m.
bunded floodplains are most characteristic of rivers crossing foothill sloping plains. Due to a sharp drop in speeds when they enter the plain, such rivers intensively accumulate the material they carry. As a result, the riverbed turns out to be elevated above the adjacent plain and limited by riverbed ramparts or natural dams up to three, and sometimes more than a meter high. During high floods, water breaks through the ramparts and floods large areas. The presence of dams and the elevation of the channel "create favorable conditions for
polishing adjacent spaces and education smoother(float in the lower reaches of the Terek and Kuban).
According to the structure, the floodplains are accumulative and socle. TO accumulative include floodplains with normal alluvium thickness. basement are called floodplains with thin alluvium lying on rocks of non-alluvial origin or on ancient alluvium in such a way that the low-water channel of the river is cut into these rocks. The formation of socle floodplains is most often associated with intense deep erosion of the river, but they can also occur as a result of lateral erosion.
The beginning of the basement floodplain can be towpath, formed at the base of a washed-out high bedrock bank, composed of fairly stable To erosion by rocks. It is a slope with a steepness of 10-30°, composed of bedrock, covered from above with a thin cover of clastic material, partly brought by the river from the overlying sections of the river, partly of local, deluvial-colluvial origin. At the top of the slope, a niche can be observed that fixes the position of the highest flood levels. The lower boundary of the towpath is the low water level in the river. The width of the towpath is different and depends both on the steepness of the slope and on the height of the floods.
In conclusion, the characteristics of “floodplains, it should be noted that in river valleys, as a rule, two levels of floodplains are observed - high and low. High They call a floodplain flooded once every several years or several decades. low floodplain flooded every year.
river terraces
On the slopes of many river valleys above the level of the floodplain, it is possible to observe leveled areas of various widths, separated from each other by more or less clearly expressed ledges in the relief. Such step-like landforms, stretching along one or both slopes of the valley for tens and hundreds of kilometers, are called river terraces(Fig. 63). Alluvial deposits take part in the structure of the terraces. This indicates that the river once flowed at a higher level and that the terraces are nothing more than ancient floodplains that emerged from the influence of the river as a result of the incision of the channel. There are many reasons leading to the formation of terraces. Let's consider only the main ones.
1. As you know, the live force of the stream depends on the mass of water. If the climate in the river basin changes towards moisture and the river becomes more full-flowing, its erosive capacity increases. There is a violation of the previously established balance between the erosion capacity of the river and the resistance of rocks to erosion. The river begins to cut in, to develop a new equilibrium profile corresponding to the new regime. Former poi-
158 ■ " ■ ■
ma comes out from under the influence of 1reni and turns into a terrace above the floodplain. Since the transporting and erosive capacity of the flow increase to a greater extent, 4eiM water flow, the intensity of the incision increases downstream. However, in the lower reaches of the river, the incision is limited by the constant position of the erosion base, so the maximum incision is observed in the middle reaches of the river. As a result, a chord-type terrace(Fig. 64, A).
2. Another reason for the formation of terraces is the change in the position of the erosion bay. Imagine that the level of the basin into which the river flows has decreased. As a result, the river, which deposited material in the lower reaches, will begin to cut into its own deposits and develop a new equilibrium profile corresponding to the new position of the erosion basis. The incision from the mouth will spread upstream the river to the place where the former slope of the longitudinal profile is so significant that its increase, caused by regressive erosion, will have practically no effect on the erosive capacity of the river. Ultimately, a terrace is formed on the site of the former floodplain, the relative height of which decreases
Up the river (Fig. 64, B). Waterfalls and rapids in the river valley can halt the progress of regressive erosion and limit the length of the terrace.
It should be emphasized that the river, when the erosion base is lowered, will cut in only if its slope in the lower reaches is less than the slope of the bottom of the receiving basin released from the water. Otherwise, a decrease in the erosion base will lead to an intensive accumulation of material carried by the river due to the lengthening of the channel and a decrease in the slope of the longitudinal profile.
3. The formation of terraces may be associated with tectonic movements. Tectonic uplift of the territory, where
the river hecks, leads with an increase in slopes, I therefore, I strengthening the erosive capacity of the river. The river begins to cut in, its old floodplain gradually turns into a terrace above the floodplain, which, by its type: is also a chordo-
howl (Fig. 64, B). If the lower reaches of the river remain stable or sink, and in the rest of the basin, which is experiencing uplift, the river cuts, then terrace scissors: terraces seem to dive under younger accumulative strata (Fig. 65).
The described processes can be repeated or overlap each other, so the number of terraces in the valleys of different rivers and in different parts of the valley of the same river can be different. The study of the structure of terraces, their number, changes in the height of the same terrace along the river valley makes it possible to find out the reasons for their occurrence, and, consequently, to restore the history of the development of the territory through which the river flows.
The relative age of the terraces is determined by their position in relation to the low water level in the river: the higher the terrace, the older it is. The terraces are counted from the bottom - from young to older. The lowest terrace above the floodplain is called the first floodplain terrace. Above is the second terrace above the floodplain, etc. Each terrace has a platform, a ledge, an edge and a rear seam (see Fig. 63).
Depending on the structure, three types of river terraces are distinguished: 1) accumulative, 2) erosional and 3) socle. TO accumulative include terraces built from the edge of the ledge to its foot with alluvium. erosion terraces almost entirely composed of bedrock, only covered from above by a thin cover of alluvium (the latter may be absent). At basement terraces the lower part of the ledge (basement) is composed of bedrock, and the upper part is alluvium. The terrace is considered to be a basement and if the basement is composed of ancient alluvial deposits,
since the type of terraces and their age is determined by the alluvium that forms the surface (platform) of the terrace. Hence it follows that in order to determine the age of a terrace, it is necessary to determine in one way or another the age (absolute or relative) of the alluvium composing it.
Since each terrace was once a floodplain, the same landforms can be found on it as on the floodplain. However, they are usually less pronounced than on the floodplain, which is associated with the impact of subsequent exogenous agents. Terrace surface<;то наклонена в сторону реки за счет снижения (размыва) прибавочной части и повышения внутреннего края в результате накопления материала, сносимого со склонов, к которым примыкает терраса. Поэтому при определении относительной высоты террас следует ориентироваться на те участки ее поверхности, которые менее всего были затронуты последующими процессами.
In addition to the terraces described above, called cyclic and traced along the entire length of the river or over most of it, in the river valleys can be developed local terraces, arising as a result of the damming of the river, sawing through a ledge composed of hard rocks, and a number of other reasons.
Pseudo-terraces are also observed in river valleys, which have only an external resemblance to "true" river terraces. "These include the structural terraces mentioned above, large blocks of landslides, washed-out fans of temporary streams, as well as lateral moraines of retreating mountain glaciers and shoulders of trough valleys (see Chapter 16).
The study of the morphology and structure of river terraces is not only of scientific interest, as discussed above, but also of great practical importance.
Rivers, while eroding rocks, simultaneously erode the ore formations contained in these rocks. Most of the valuable components disappear in the process of transportation by the river (abraded, dissolved, dispersed, carried out in the waters of the receiving basins). A smaller part of them lingers in the valley in alluvial deposits and, under favorable conditions, can give an accumulation of certain minerals, called alluvial placers or alluvial deposits. The characteristic minerals of alluvial deposits are mainly heavy and stable, such as diamond, gold, platinum, cassiterite, minerals containing tungsten, and some others.
Morphological and genetic types of river valleys
The morphology of river valleys is determined by the geological and physiographic conditions of the area crossed by the river, the history of the development of the valley.
With intensive cutting, due to the uplift of a mountainous country, valleys such as gorges, gorges or canyons arise.
Gorge is a deeply incised erosional form with vertical or nearly vertical slopes. Gorge differs from the gorge in a V-shaped transverse profile, often with convex slopes. Canyon morphologically similar to the gorge: it has a V-shaped transverse profile, it is distinguished by the stepped slopes due to the preparation of resistant rocks. A typical canyon is the valley of the Colorado River in its middle reaches. In all three types of valleys, the bottom is wholly or almost wholly occupied by the channel, and is longitudinal. The transverse profiles of such valleys are more or less symmetrical. They differ sharply asymmetrical river valleys, the formation of which is often associated with the monoclinal occurrence of rocks, as well as with some other reasons, which we will discuss below.
In the later stages of the development of the valley, when lateral erosion already plays an important role in its formation, box-shaped transverse profile river valley. Such a valley has a wide flat bottom, and the channel occupies only a small part of the valley floor. In addition to poim, river terraces can be developed on the slopes of box-shaped valleys. Valleys of this type are most characteristic of lowland countries.
Many rivers originate in the mountains, and then go to the plain. Accordingly, the nature of their valleys may experience significant changes in different parts of the current. These changes, in particular, include not only differences in the transverse and longitudinal profiles of the valley, but also in the behavior of the terraces. So, for example, in areas of increasing incision due to the uplift of the territory, an increase in the heights of terraces above the level of the valley is always noted. As you move away from this area the height of the terraces is reduced. When moving into the area of subsidence, not only the decrease in terraces occurs, but also a decrease in their number, and in the most strongly sagging territory, the terraces, as mentioned above, “dive”, sink under the level of the floodplain.
Valleys are sensitive to changes in the geological structure. Often, areas composed of very strong rocks or experiencing intense uplift are bypassed by river valleys. Sometimes the river flow does not deviate under the action of the rising structure, but cuts it along the normal or in a direction close to the normal, forming the so-called through valleys. At least three different ways of their formation are possible.
The through valley can be antecedent, i.e., formed as a result of "cutting" a slowly growing uplift that arose in its path. Through valleys can also be epigenetic i.e. superimposed from above, or arise as a result of regressive erosion when sawing a watershed ridge by a mountain stream. In this case, an interception of a river located on the other side of the watershed and less deeply incised may occur (Fig. 66).
Significant impact on the sea and the nature of the occurrence of rocks
In areas with horizontal bedding and a uniform lithological composition of the constituent rocks, the morphology of river valleys is the least dependent on the geological structure. Such valleys are called neutral or atectonic. In areas of disturbed bedding, some valleys coincide with the strike of tectonic structures.
tour (fold axes, fault lines, strike bands of resistant and pliable rocks). These are valleys "adapted" to the geological structure. Other valleys cut geological structures at some angle. Therefore, in dislocated areas, valleys are distinguished longitudinal, transverse And diagonal. Per-
For a considerable distance, the Vye are characterized by a uniform (typical for a particular river) profile and width of the valley, with a straightened course. The second and third valleys change their morphological appearance in profile and plan very often. Examples of transverse valleys are consequent rivers of cuesta regions, antecedent and epigenetic valleys. The longitudinal profile of the transverse and diagonal valleys is characterized by greater underdevelopment than the profile of the valleys of the longitudinal rivers. Depending on the type of geological structure in which the longitudinal valleys are laid, there are synclinal, anticlinal, monoclinal valleys, valleys coinciding with the lines of longitudinal faults and graben valleys. Each of these types of valleys is characterized by its own morphological features peculiar only to it (Fig. 67), and the nature of the processes occurring on their slopes.
Asymmetry of the valleys
It was mentioned above that the transverse profile of river valleys is often asymmetric. Reasons for the asymmetry of river valleys
may be different. Moving down or up the valley, very often one can observe an increase in the steepness of either the left or the right slope. It depends, as it were, on which slope of the valley the riverbed approaches, as well as on the rapid change in composition or. conditions of occurrence of rocks that make up the slopes of the valley. However, in nature there are also such cases when one slope
The valleys are constantly steeper than the other for many kilometers. S: S. Voskresensky calls this asymmetry “sustainable”. It will be discussed below.
The reasons causing the asymmetry of the slopes of the valleys can be divided into three groups: 1) tectonic, manifested through lithology and geological structures; 2) planetary, associated with the rotation of the Earth around its axis; 3) causes due to the activity of exogenous and, first of all, slope processes.
The tectonic “basis” of slope asymmetry is very common. In some cases it is due to the peculiarities of the geological structure of the substrate, in others it was created under the direct influence of the latest tectonic movements.
Well-known asymmetries
a series of subsequential valleys of quest regions, in which the structures
ny (armored) slope is usually more gentle than the opposite
a flat astructural slope, where bare
you monoclinal layers (Fig. 68, L). Same
the cause of the asymmetry of the valleys that occur on the slopes of the anticline
lei, in the structure of which breeds of various other species take part
ness (Fig. 68, B).■
The asymmetry of the slopes inevitably arises if the valley is laid along a fault, the wings of which are composed of rocks of different stability (Fig. 68, D), or along the contact of igneous and sedimentary rocks (Fig. 68, D). The so-called topographic theory A. A. Borzova - A. V. Nachaeva,
Consisting in the fact that the skew of the original flat surface, caused by uneven uplift or deformation, leads to an inequality of runoff from the slopes of valleys perpendicular to the slope. As a result, the slope of the valley, coinciding with the direction of the slope of the topographic surface, will collapse and flatten out faster (Fig. 69). Other variants of the influence of tectonic movements and the structures formed by them on the occurrence of asymmetry in river valleys are also possible.
However, there are many examples that cannot be explained by geological reasons alone. It is known, for example, that most of the major rivers of the northern hemisphere have a “rue right bank and a gentle left bank. This is due to the Coriolis acceleration, which deflects the flow of rivers to the right (in the southern hemisphere - to the left). Such are the valleys of the rivers Volga, Dnieper, Don, Ob, Bnisei, Lena, Amur, Parana, etc.
The asymmetry of river valleys can also arise as a result of the activity of exogenous agents. So, for example, the asymmetry of slopes can be formed due to numerous landslides that occur on a slope that coincides with the slope of the reservoir (Fig. 68, B). The same group of factors includes the influence of the prevailing wind-ro; in or prevailing wet (bringing precipitation) winds. A. D. Arkhangelsky and N. A. Dimo attached great importance to insolation in the formation of slope asymmetry. A. V. Stupishin notes the important role in this process of the so-called "snow: asymmetry".
With a long-term development of the relief, the asymmetry of the slopes of the river valleys leads to the asymmetry of the interfluves.