Where is the Summer Palace and how to get to it. Symbol of Russia's new policy
If someone decides to become a nerd - best place than a garden for this can not be found. And the history of vegetables can be very fascinating. Here, for example, everyone remembers well the history of the potato. The fact that potatoes were brought to Europe from America, that they didn’t “see through” it right away ... Peter brought it to Russia, but it spread after the war with Napoleon, when economic Cossacks brought trophy potatoes from France in bags and planted them in their gardens ... But her first harvest was obtained in the Summer Garden.
The history of other vegetables is no less informative. In the Summer Garden in St. Petersburg under Peter I, there was an Apothecary Garden, in which garden and greenhouse plants,as well as spicy and medicinal herbs. In this historic garden in the bosquet "Red Garden" you can attend a lecture and learn that the Tatar-Mongols brought onions to us, that the new fashionable purple carrot is just a well-forgotten old one, about royal methods of getting rid of mosquitoes and moths, in a word - about kings and cabbage. In any case, we can say with certainty that Peter ate both cabbage and artichokes, and Peter's cooks knew what to do with hyssop, parsnips and asparagus. I have long wanted to write about the plants that became the prototypes of jewelry, but under the impression of the opportunity to look into the pot to Peter the Great, I will be a little distracted by the topic of the day.
This picture gives an idea of what vegetables could be present on the table of a European in the 18th century.
In the Pharmaceutical Garden of Peter I in the Summer Garden in front of the greenhouse, there are guided tours (by the way, free of charge) dedicated to the plants grown here under Peter. Many of these plants appeared in Russia thanks to Peter. Excursions (very interesting) are conducted by Viktor Melnikov, the garden has its own VKontakte group - Botanical excursions in the Summer Garden.
On the first bed, thyme or thyme (or Bogorodskaya grass). On the second bed, onion-batun and onions, which are cut so that there are fresh feathers - chives.
On the right is melissa and peppermint. By the way, mint was used as an air freshener - for example, it was rubbed on benches at weddings.
This is tansy - earlier, with its help, they got rid of domestic insects, including mosquitoes and moths :))
This is a very noble vegetable called artichoke. IN Ancient Rome only patricians were allowed to eat it. One or two fruits grew on one bush, and even the middle was cut out of it - of course, such a vegetable is not enough for everyone. There is only one artichoke in the garden - it has already bloomed and now it is not good for food, it will go for seeds. Now artichokes are sold in supermarkets, they are popular in many countries, but we have no idea what to do with them.
Carrots did not immediately become the orange vegetable that we are used to. Now purple carrots are coming into fashion, in fact the very first carrot was just purple, but they were not very fond of using it in cooking, because it gave them a pale purple, not very appetizing shade. It has recently become as pretty as it is now, and the white and yellow carrots that were eaten before are now grown only as fodder. This culture came to us from Afghanistan.
colorful carrots
This is how carrots bloom
Still Life with Game, Vegetables and Fruit by Juan Sanchez Cotán, 1602, Prado Museum (Madrid). A celery-like vegetable is the Spanish artichoke (on the right), more precisely cardon. As a result of thistle breeding, an artichoke with a developed inflorescence and a cardon, a vegetable with a developed stem, were obtained.
Marigolds - they are sometimes sold as saffron in oriental bazaars
Also marigolds, on the right is kohlrabi cabbage along the edge and white in the middle
Hyssop, spice and ancient medicinal plant
Potatoes white and red. After the potato came to Europe from America, it was grown in flowerbeds for a long time because of the flowers and tried to eat the berries, but they were bitter. 5-pointed potato flower worn as decoration
Cabbage on the left, hyssop on the right
One of the names of wormwood is vermouth, absinthe was also made from it.
Orange trees had bitter fruits, so they preferred oranges, but orange flowers were very much appreciated.
orange trees
Parsnip
Asparagus - in the picture a bunch of asparagus is tied, on the right she is in the garden
Rue flower in the form of a Maltese cross
Ruta fragrant - spice and medicinal plant. The flowers are in the shape of a cross, so it was attributed a religious meaning. Used for sprinkling temples before Sunday Mass.
Also sage
Dwarf sunflower - imported from America, and sunflower oil was invented here in Russia
Oregano - especially many bees fly around it
Oregano close up
This is blue cyanosis, the leaves are similar to mountain ash
Basil - noble in translation. In skillful hands, he acquired magical power. It happens green too, but in our country it does not take root due to low frost resistance. Smells divine.
Nasturtium flowers look like helmets, and the leaves look like shields, that is, war trophies - hence its Latin name "trophae". Ate everything, starting with the roots.
I also forgot to take a picture of calendula and strawberries. Under Peter, shag was grown here. At the heart of Peter's garden is a plan of monastic European gardens. In terms of a cross of two paths, in the center is a fountain. The monasteries were at the same time fortresses and the source of water was important for them.
garden roses
This is the gardener's den
Such a charming bouquet was formed from what we had to smell. The bouquet is completely unique, there may not be another opportunity to get plants from historical beds
This oak at the time of the foundation of St. Petersburg was about 40 years old - the oldest tree in the Summer Garden.
Lattice summer garden
300-year-old lindens of Peter the Great
Cowberry
old linden
Fountain "Crown"
Studying the history of the appearance of gardens in St. Petersburg, Tsarskoe Selo, one involuntarily plunges into the activity of Peter I, unfamiliar to most of us, as the organizer and creator, the zealous owner of the first gardens.
He carefully preserved the forests during the initial construction of the city. The most valuable of the broad-leaved species - oak - was almost never found. And those trees that met were especially protected. In the first description of Petersburg in 1710-1711. mention is made of Peter's order to keep "in special honor" two old oaks that grew on the coast of the island of Retusari (Kotlin). They were surrounded by a fence, in the shade they arranged a gazebo overlooking the sea, in which the king liked to "sit with shipbuilders." But in the descriptions of the city five years later, these oaks are no longer mentioned.
The special predilection of Peter I for oak was explained by the fact that it was the main tree species from which ship hulls were then built. One of the ships of the young fleet built in 1718 was even named "Old Oak". It was said that Peter the Great himself planted acorns along the Peterhof road, wishing that oaks were bred everywhere. Noticing that one of the nobles smiled at his labors, he turned around and said in anger: “I understand, you think I won’t live to see mature oaks. True, but you’re a fool. over time, they built ships from them.
Extremely rare in the forests of the time of Peter I, another valuable broad-leaved species - beech. Perhaps the last copies of it were found in the 50s of the last century on the Duderhof heights.
When building up the city, Peter I preserved the mother forests as much as possible: a small spruce grove was left on the banks of the Neva in front of the current Trinity Bridge; another spruce grove was preserved on the banks of the Moika, opposite the Particular Shipyard; the spruce forest was left on the island during the construction of New Holland. The latter was declared reserved by Peter, which marked the beginning of the history and the very protection of urban nature. The laws were strict: for cutting down protected forests, as well as trees suitable for the construction of ships, "the death penalty will be inflicted without any mercy, no matter who it is" (decrees of Peter I of November 19, 1703, of January 19, 1705) . Judging by the fact that the decrees were repeated, logging continued, there were punishments for them, but, as historians say, it did not come to the death penalty.
But the forests, of course, were doomed to cutting down, since the city was being built, and the main material at first was wood. In addition, the owners of estates along the Fontanka were ordered to cut down dense forests in order to deprive the habitats of "dashing people" who "repaired attacks" on the townspeople.
Arrangement of the first gardens
Gardens at the beginning of the 18th century were arranged in the Dutch style, which Peter I loved so much. As a child, he grew up in such gardens in Moscow, which were strongly influenced by the Dutch Baroque. This love for beautiful gardens, trees, fragrant flowers and herbs stayed with him for the rest of his life. Passion for gardens was supported by considerable knowledge in botany and horticulture. Peter I, in fact, was the first and chief landscaper of St. Petersburg. He single-handedly decided which plants would grow here, and he dealt with this with enthusiasm, as well as with many other urgent matters. Where does such love and knowledge in gardening come from?
According to the historian I. E. Zabelin, "none of our ancient Tsars, in his home life, was engaged with such passion agriculture like Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich" (Peter's father). "... due to the liveliness of his character, he indulged in every business with special fervor" and, in addition, "he loved to bring every business ... to complete deanery and dispensation." It is surprising that he went down in history under the name of the Quietest... The fruits of his labors were extensive gardens in Izmailovo and Kolomenskoye, in which not only ordinary fruit trees and berries grew, but also rare, even exotic species for the Moscow region: walnuts, Siberian cedars, fir. A grape garden was also planted, but the Astrakhan vine grew poorly there.
(It is interesting that at the behest of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and with his participation, the first Russian ship "Orel" was built on the Oka River. Historians find the profile of the ship on the spire of the Admiralty to be similar to that first ship. So the passion for building ships, apparently, is also not accidental in the life and works of Peter I).
Peter, in all likelihood, inherited from his father a taste for gardening. He planted the same gardens at the palace in Preobrazhensky, where he lived at the beginning of his reign, before leaving for St. Petersburg. Overseas curiosities were grown in the gardens of Peter: cypress, wintering under cover, many flowers from Western Europe. Tulips, daffodils, carnations, marigolds, marigolds (calendula), yellow lilies and other rarities bloomed here. Rose hips were held in high esteem, which was then called "common color" (real roses were not yet grown in Russia at that time). Peter especially loved fragrant herbs, wrote out their seeds and ordered them to be planted along the paths: rue, tansy, hyssop, "German mint", kalufer (or kanufer, balsamic chamomile - a perennial from the Caucasus, Asia Minor, spicy grass, added to snuff in the XVIII century). It was from the Moscow region and Moscow that Peter ordered plants to be sent for planting in St. Petersburg. In the spring of 1704, the first flowers and herbs were sent to equip the Summer Garden.
It is known that the Summer Garden was "divorced in 1711 according to a plan drawn by the sovereign himself" (SN Shubinsky). Peter I took care of planting gardens not only in St. Petersburg, but also in Moscow, Taganrog, Riga, and Ukraine. He entered into all the details of garden construction, gave orders, being abroad; subscribed to books on gardening, created projects for new gardens.
Judging by the papers of the king, he himself ordered tree seedlings from Holland through Revel, as well as from Moscow, Lvov, the Siberian province, and Ukraine. He especially loved lindens, familiar to northern places, chestnuts. The trees were removed under the supervision of gardeners, with every precaution to preserve them. In 1712, 1,300 lime trees were ordered from Holland. In addition, elm, cedar, hornbeam, larch, and poplar were imported to Russia from Holland. Oaks, which Peter cherished so much, were imported from the surrounding Novgorod places.
As early as 1707, foreign gardeners were invited, capable of replanting large, mature trees without damage, as was done at the French court. One of these masters was Martin Gender, a gardener from Potsdam. Letters from Peter to Apraksin have been preserved: "... you can buy young orange, lemon and other trees, which are a curiosity here.
Plant in boxes to be transported next spring. "For the wintering of heat-loving fig trees (figs), grapes," warm anbars "(greenhouses) were built. The more extensive economic ties with Europe became, the more diverse the assortment of plants that were planted in St. Petersburg and its surroundings.
There are many documents that confirm this. T. K. Goryshina in the book "The Green World of Old Petersburg" provides interesting information about this. So, in 1719, an order was sent to the gardener Schultz in Hamburg for "3000 pieces of syringa hispanica (lilac), 100 pieces of roses, 20 pieces of terry clematis, cherries of low trees" (i.e., bush form), a lot of apricot, peach, chestnut trees. The gardener Steffel was ordered to send an extensive set of seeds and bulbs of flower plants, spicy and fragrant herbs, and another "2000 arshin bukshbomu". This was the name of boxwood - an evergreen shrub, which in the 18th century was grown in a sheared form to create continuous linear borders, while measured by arshins (1 arshin \u003d 711.2 mm). Orders like this one were sent to Amsterdam, Gdansk, Sweden. Even in Peter's decree (dated January 3, 1717, to Konon Zotov) regarding the sending of noble children to France to study naval service, there is an unexpected indication at the end: "Also look for laurel trees that are put in pots so that from the ground to the crowns they are no higher stems like 2 feet" (1 foot = 304.8 mm).
For heat-loving southern plants, greenhouses had to be built. Trees were brought from Moscow, Novgorod district, from areas north of St. Petersburg. Plants were brought from Sweden on ships specially sent there. For the parks of St. Petersburg, hundreds and even thousands of broad-leaved trees were brought: lindens, maples, elms. It is known that in the spring of 1723, about eight thousand seedlings of linden, ash, elms and maples were brought to the Summer Garden. European gardens and parks were mainly created from these rocks. Thanks to the undertakings of Peter I, these species from exotic plantations have now become predominant in the green attire of the city, its gardens and parks.
The decisiveness, speed and onslaught of Peter were also reflected in the methods of landscaping the city. He had no time to wait for small seedlings to grow up; he needed to plant large, mature trees. In a letter to Major Ushakov dated February 8, 1716, Peter orders to prepare lindens near Moscow in the winter, cut off their tops and take them to St. Petersburg in the spring. Such transportation by carts on horseback took at least three weeks. It soon became clear that it was not The best way transplants. We started summer transplants with a clod of earth, which turned out to be much more effective. Even winter digging was practiced with the help of a special machine, digging up trees until spring. In this way, it was possible to transplant even very capricious breeds. But the main thing, of course, was the most thorough care of highly professional gardeners for each plant.
It is curious to note that the requirements of imported plants for heat did not bother the customer too much, the "southerners" were simply placed in greenhouses. They were attentive to the soil conditions in which plants grew in their homeland. For example, when ordering a horse chestnut from Holland, Peter I ordered to take trees growing on different soils, while collecting and sending soil samples in "bags" in order to select the most suitable land for planting.
In the post-Petrine era, the composition of the foreign flora largely depended on the then working foreign gardeners, who brought their own tastes and preferences to the appearance of city gardens and parks, in addition to colossal professional experience and knowledge. Naturally, German gardeners ordered many plants from Germany, the Dutch - from Holland. During the construction of the Tauride Garden at the end of the 18th century, the work was carried out by the English gardener W. Gould, and most of the trees and flower plants were brought from England. There were even garden incidents: in the middle of the 18th century, while working in the Tsarskoye Selo park, the gardener Jacob Rekhlin insisted on uprooting most of the main tree species - linden, already growing in it, as "not very decent." It was replaced with sheared yew and laurel in tubs. (It should be noted that in the last few years the front part of the regular park and the square in front of the Catherine Palace were again decorated with tubed laurel trees with spherical and pyramidal crown shapes).
History of Dutch gardens in Russia
Trying to rebuild the Russian way of life, Peter began precisely with the creation of gardens, sending his people abroad to learn Dutch garden art. Peter's favorite gardener was the Dutchman Jan Rosen, who also created the Tsarskoye Selo Garden. At the request of the sovereign, a sculpture was added to the classical Dutch garden, which decorated the alleys and labyrinths of the garden. The ideological idea of this innovation was to introduce elements of a European, secular attitude to the world and nature into the worldview of visitors. New for them, pan-European emblems were introduced into the minds of Russians. In this regard, in 1705 in Amsterdam, on the orders of Peter, the book "Symbols and Emblems" was published, which was later reprinted several times.
The book presented examples of the symbolic system of gardens, their decorations, triumphal arches, fireworks, sculptural decorations of buildings and gardens. In fact, it was a new, secular "primer" of the sign system instead of the old, ecclesiastical one.
In an effort to establish closer cultural ties with Europe as soon as possible, Peter I sought to make ancient mythology understandable and familiar to Russian educated people. Landscape gardening art was the most accessible and at the same time very active. The Summer Garden, as the first urban garden, became a kind of "academy" where Russian people passed the beginnings of European cultural education. Labyrinths of sheared living plants were arranged there according to the samples of Versailles, as well as plots from people's lives on the themes of "Aesopian parables". Peter so valued Aesop's Parables as an important element of the new European education that they were translated by Ilya Kopievsky and published in Amsterdam in Russian and Latin among the first books. The same plots were used in the construction of parks in Peterhof, Tsarskoye Selo.
Historians note Peter's special love for rare flowers (their seeds and seedlings were ordered from abroad), for "porcelain sets for decorating flower beds," and also an addiction to garden crackers. A variety of cracker fountains still attract the attention of numerous guests of the beautiful parks of Peterhof.
The Dutch garden was filled with fruit trees and shrubs, arranged in a regular pattern, and always full of flowers. The owner's house could be located on the side of the main axis of the garden, on both sides of which there were terraces and green "studies". (The Summer Garden is an example.) In Dutch gardening, it was customary to plant a house (or palace) thickly with trees. So in the Old Garden of Tsarskoye Selo, the trees formerly closely adjoined the garden facade of the Catherine Palace.
These old linden trees mostly survived the Great Patriotic War. In the 60s, the reconstruction of the Old Garden began in order to revive its regular "Versailles" appearance, in imitation of which it was created. Each reconstruction of historical objects, whether architectural monuments or parks, which are living, time-changing objects, causes discussions among specialists and the public about exactly what period of the existence of a given object should be restored to its historical appearance. In the case of the Dutch Garden in Catherine's park Tsarskoye Selo, the choice was made in favor of the period of the greatest prosperity of the park and the palace in the middle of the 18th century, during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna. Most of the old trees, which could no longer be cut according to the rules of a regular garden, were cut down, to the great chagrin of many admirers of Tsarskoye Selo gardens.
In the future, the concept of "Dutch garden" came to mean a small garden near the house with big amount colors. It began to have a similar meaning in English language, being called "Dutch Garden". "Dutch gardens" belonged to the gardens of the romantic type. Such were the gardens of Russian estates of the 19th century, being an integral and organic part in the transition from the architecture of the house, the mansion to the landscape part of the estate park. D.S. Likhachev in his book "The Poetry of Gardens" describes in great detail and fascinatingly the history and various styles of gardens from different times and countries, including the romantic gardens of Tsarskoe Selo.
History of plant species new to St. Petersburg
At the beginning of the 21st century, we got used to the abundance of ornamental plants growing in private gardens, parks, and just on city streets. But this was not always the case, and proper ornamental gardens are still quite rare.Most often, our private gardens resemble those old Dutch gardens, from which they began to decorate the capital and its suburbs. And they certainly planted fruit trees, berries, garden vegetables and many flowers. How did the accumulation and enrichment of types of ornamental and food crops, ways of caring for them occur? And again we have to return to the times of Peter the Great.
Thousands of people were employed in the construction of St. Petersburg. Working conditions in the local climate were monstrously difficult. In order to somehow maintain the health of workers and the army, by decree of Peter in 1714, an Apothecary garden was founded on one of the islands in the delta of the Neva River. There began to grow a variety of medicinal plants. But Peter's idea from the very beginning was much broader than this practical task.
Gardeners were charged with the duty to breed rare "overseas" plants. Subsequently, the Pharmaceutical Garden grew into the Medico-Botanical Garden. On its basis, in 1823, the Imperial Botanical Garden was established, which by the beginning of the 20th century became one of the largest botanical gardens in the world, a center of botanical science. His collections of living plants, herbarium, collection of botanical literature become known far beyond the borders of Russia.
The collection began with herbaceous plants, but by 1736 it also included tree species of about 45 items. The collections were continuously replenished by botanists after each expedition. Over the years, the number of only tree species acclimatized in our conditions reached 1000 names, not to mention herbaceous garden and greenhouse plants. Further Botanical Garden became a source of introduction into the culture of St. Petersburg and its environs of many hundreds of new species of ornamental plants adapted to local conditions.
Special scientific institutions collected collections of agricultural crops, developing new technologies for their cultivation, creating new varieties and hybrids. The Institute of Plant Growing, its Experimental Stations, located throughout the country, became such an institution. Since 1938, the Control and Seed Experimental Station in Pushkin has been studying and introducing ornamental crops into the production and landscaping of the city. IN best years her work in the collection and production, there were more than 1300 species and varieties of ornamental plants, including flower crops in open and protected ground, flowering shrubs and a large arboretum. The history of many now familiar ornamental plants began in past centuries.
It is interesting that the tree-like caragana (yellow acacia, as it is colloquially called), so common now in landscaping, was "introduced" into plantings by the scientific gardener G. Ekleben, who in 1758-1778 served as the chief master of the Imperial Gardens. He was an ardent supporter of the cultivation of the "Siberian pea tree", as this breed was then called, not only as an ornamental, but also as a food plant, eating its fruits as food as peas and lentils. True, the nutritional merits of caragana were not recognized at that time. Getting acquainted with the history of decorative gardening in St. Petersburg, we learn about fashionable different times plants, methods of their cultivation and conservation in northern places. In the first half of the 18th century, roses and boxwood were considered the most fashionable. And now their usual shelter for the winter with spruce paws, felt, matting was invented by the Dutch gardener B. Fok.
Many ornamental plants in those days were bred as spices: levkoy, anemone, golden rod (solidago), gentian (gentian) and other species.
In St. Petersburg, there were attempts to acclimatize foreign plants for practical use, and not only for decorative purposes. These experiments were carried out by the Free Economic Society, established in 1765. In 1801, Alexander I granted him the western half of Petrovsky Island. Forage grasses (sainfoin, alfalfa, timothy), buckwheat, oilseeds, dyeing and fragrant herbs, as well as sesame and cotton were sown on a plot of land cleared from the forest in the hope of proving that "all this can be born near St. Petersburg."
One of the historians of St. Petersburg subsequently reacted very critically to the new undertakings, but rightly noted the undoubted value of these experiments. This enriched the future cultural flora of our places, and also became one of the sources of urban weeds. In the course of these experiments, it was possible for the first time to grow from larch seeds, which so adorned the city and its parks. But in general, the daring experience did not bring the expected result, and in 1836 the land was taken away from the Free Economic Society, and it was allowed to build dachas on Petrovsky Island.
In general, the number of species of foreign plants in St. Petersburg was quite significant, although not all attempts at acclimatization were successful. This, together with the ensemble architecture, also made the capital different from the rest of the country. Many species have found their way into greenhouses, and others have been called "cultural fugitives" by botanists because they actually seeped through garden walls and dispersed into streets, wastelands, lawns, and other habitats. Already at the end of the 19th century (and now too) wild garden flowers came across in the city: early American aster, Central European daisy, subtropical cosmea, Asian aquilegia, now the ubiquitous North American Jerusalem artichoke. One of the wild medicinal chamomiles - fragrant - from the Aptekarsky Island spread not only in St. Petersburg, but also went further, deep into Russia and the Far East.
Elena Kuzmina
Current page: 1 (total book has 37 pages) [accessible reading excerpt: 25 pages]
Viktor Abramovich Korentsvit
Summer Garden of Peter the Great. Story of past and present
Design by the artist Ya.A. Galeeva
The series “All about St. Petersburg” has been produced since 2003
Project Manager Eduard Sirotkin
Introduction
In memory of architects A.E. Gessen and N.E. Tumanova, authors of the Summer Garden restoration project of the 1970s.
Somehow I came across a fantastic story. The author (I don't remember his last name, unfortunately) looked into a bright future, in which there were more writers in his native country than readers. The writers knew their reader by sight, loved him already because he himself did not write books, but only read, asked and demanded his attention. Libraries arranged meetings with a wonderful reader, and writers with their books lined up for his autograph. This ridiculous scene occurred to me more than once when I thought of starting on a book about the Summer Garden, about which, by my count, 12 books and an uncountable number of articles have already been written. This, of course, is a record for our city, and, perhaps, for the whole country. And ahead is a wave of new publications related to the restoration of the historical ensemble. How without risk to bore the reader to avoid endless retellings for a long time known facts? But what if the other way around: not to avoid, but to focus on the mistakes that wander from one publication to another? Some of the category of curiosities: you can only smile when you read that summer palace placed where the Fontanka flows into the Neva, and in the garden there was a birdcage measuring 20 x 20 fathoms, despite the fact that the entire width of the garden is a little more than 110 fathoms! Others are not so harmless. What is the assertion that the restorers have committed a crime, turning the Summer Garden, which has long since become a landscape, into a kind of regular.
When was the royal residence founded? What is known about the wooden royal mansions that preceded the Summer Palace? Who is the author of the Summer Palace project, and what did the building look like originally? Who owns the layout of the garden? What kind of fountains were in the garden, who made them? What caused the death of Peter's water cannons? What was the imperial residence during the time of Peter I and his immediate successors? Who is the author of the Neva fence? What are they, imaginary and real, the problems of restoration? We hope to clarify these and other questions on the basis of archival documents and archaeological excavations.
October 1974 "Sad time" - not best time for excavations, especially in the Summer Garden open to visitors, but the architect Alexander Ernestovich Gessen could not get permission to excavate before autumn. A.E. Gessen brought with him a group of volunteers who worked with him in the palace of A.D. Menshikov on Vasilyevsky Island. In those years, there were enthusiasts who were ready to participate in the restoration of monuments with free personal labor. They decreased in number, but did not disappear, and now they call themselves volunteers more often. In those conditions, it was simply impossible to do without their help. Circles of voluntary assistants formed around the restorers, people of different ages and professions: schoolchildren and pensioners, workers and scientists.
Once we discovered with a laugh that a small fountain in oak grove dig with me in the evening after work, two candidates and a doctor of technical sciences. In the Summer Garden there is no passage from the curious. But there was no shortage of assistants: to the group of A.E. Gessen was joined by students of Leningrad University and the Academy of Arts, schoolchildren from the Palace of Pioneers. I'm back from my vacation at the dig ancient city Olbia on the banks of the Bug estuary, and as a researcher at the State Inspectorate for the Protection of Monuments, an archaeologist by education received an order from his leadership to lead the excavations.
Archaeologist V.A. Korentsvit and schoolchildren from the local history circle "Leningradets" at the Palace of Pioneers during excavations in the Summer Garden. 1975
Already the first archaeological season in 1974 showed that it was impossible to count on the help of volunteers alone. At the initiative of the head of the State Inspectorate for the Protection of Monuments I.P. Sautov in the Special Research and Production Association "Restorer" in 1975, a sector of architectural and archaeological research was created, in which I, a graduate of Leningrad University, became its only employee. He put aside his dissertation "The Influence of the Greek Religion on the Religious Ideas of the Scythians" and for 30 years connected his work with what eventually became known as the "Archaeology of St. Petersburg". But already in retirement, I nevertheless published an article about human sacrifices in the ancient fortress city of Ilurat, which is 17 km from ancient capital Bosporus kingdom Panticapaeum (Kerch) 1 .
SNPO "Restorer" is a unique enterprise for its time, in which architects, designers, scientists worked together with specialists of all restoration professions. It became possible to organize systematic archaeological research both in the city and in the suburbs. palace and park ensembles: Peterhof, Oranienbaum, Strelna, Tsarskoye Selo and Pavlovsk. I recall with gratitude the constant participants in our excavations, pupils of the wonderful teacher Vladimir Ilyich Axelrod. The head of the club "Leningradets" of the Palace of Pioneers for the first time brought his students to excavations in the Summer Garden back in 1974. Former pioneers and pioneers are already retired, they raised children, some have grandchildren. IN AND. Axelrod is still young, full of energy and enthusiasm.
Summer garden. Archaeological excavations 1974–1975 Pit Master Plan
For the first time, the question of the need for scientific restoration of the Summer Garden was raised in connection with the liquidation of the consequences of the catastrophic flood of 1924. But the scale of restoration work throughout the city was so great that it was necessary to confine itself to planting new trees to replace the fallen ones. At the beginning of 1941, T.B. Dubyago defended her Ph.D. thesis on the theme "Restoration of the Summer Garden". The project included the reconstruction of four fountains on the Main Alley and the Great Parterre near the Swan Canal, the installation of trellises along the sides of the alleys and the resumption of tree trimming. The dissertation materials formed the basis of the monograph published in 1951 by T.B. Dubyago "Summer Garden", but the project did not come to full implementation, only a flower garden of arbitrary design appeared on the Big Parterre. In the 1960s architect A.E. Gessen carried out the restoration of the Summer Palace, and in the early 1970s. together with N.E. Tumanova began to develop a project for the restoration of the Summer Garden. With the names of architects N.E. Tumanova and A.E. hesse bound wonderful pages Leningrad School of Restoration. The main business of N.E. Tumanova (1931–1995), students of Professor T.B. Dubyago, was a long-term work on the restoration of the famous parks of Tsarskoye Selo - Ekaterininsky and Aleksandrovsky. With the work of the oldest Leningrad architect-restorer A.E. Hesse (1917–2001) is familiar to all residents and guests of our city. According to his projects, the house and the Summer Palace of Peter I in St. Petersburg, the Monplaisir and Marly palaces in Peterhof, the facades of the Kazan Cathedral, Marble Palace and other objects. From the institute bench A.E. Gessen volunteered for the war. Fought near Leningrad and in the Caucasus. Was badly wounded. Until the end of his life, Alexander Ernestovich courageously endured the suffering that fell to his lot, since the surgeons could not remove numerous small fragments of an exploding mine from the body.
Already the first results of excavations initiated by A.E. Hesse, became a sensation: it turned out that at a depth of about 1 m, the remains of Peter's fountains were preserved. It became apparent that the garden restoration project needed to be adjusted, as problems arose of how to preserve the ruins and display some of them. For a number of reasons, the restoration never came to fruition. However, the materials of our research were useful, they formed the basis of a new project for the restoration of the Summer Garden, carried out 35 years later, developed by the creative team of the Lenproektrestavratsiya Institute and Rest-Art-Project LLC. Chief architect of the project N.P. Ivanov.
Restorers must live long to see the results of their work. Architects N.E. Tumanov and A.E. Gessen died before the idea of restoring the Summer Garden was put into practice. In memory of A.E. Gessen and N.E. I dedicate this book to Tumanova.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to the author of the project for the restoration of the Summer Garden, architect Nikolai Petrovich Ivanov, for his help in working on the book; Head of the Department of Western European Art of the State Hermitage Sergei Olegovich Androsov; the chief curator of the gardens of the Russian Museum, Olga Albertovna Cherdantseva; researcher Boris Sergeevich Makarov.
I would like to thank Konstantin Viktorovich Likholet, Director General of Pallada LLC, whose sincere interest in seeing the light of this book contributed to its appearance.
Notes
1 Korentsvit V.A. Sanctuary in Ilurata. Bosporan phenomenon: the sacred meaning of the region, monuments, finds: Proceedings of the International Scientific. conf. St. Petersburg, 2007, part 1, pp. 159–167.
Summer Garden of Petra
Chapter first
Letnesadovskie tales
When archaeologists came to the garden, they happened to hear familiar stories about treasures, underground passages and dungeons, where skeletons of tortured prisoners lie on the floor next to clay bowls, and iron rings protrude from the walls, to which the unfortunate were chained - in a word, everything what they usually tell about places that are really interesting for archaeologists.
Nevertheless, there is a rational grain in the legends about the secrets of the Summer Garden. And during the war years, when the lawns crossed the trenches and cracks, and in peacetime, when laying all kinds of communications, more than once they came across mysterious masonry. Brick collectors, through which water was supplied and drained from the fountains - why not underground passages! On them you can get on all fours or crawling, and in other places go to full height. For the prison dungeons one could take the basement of the Large stone greenhouse.
Even the amazing stories of skeletons and iron rings are based on real facts. Bones, however, not of people, but of animals, are quite common. And the cast-iron mooring rings sticking out of the masonry were remembered by eyewitnesses of the excavations of Havanets near the Summer Palace in 1964.
Curious passers-by could observe how, while digging trenches, workers removed from the ground fragments of painted majolica vases, Dutch tiles, Chinese porcelain, overseas shells, coins, smoking pipes, fragments of statues and architectural details. All this gave rise to rumors about hidden treasures, including museum exhibits buried during the war years and not found until now.
"The Summer Palace stands where the Fontanka flows into the Neva"It turns out that this delusion long history. The author of the very first description of St. Petersburg in 1710 (Gerkens) made an inaccuracy, saying that the royal majesty has a residence near the river that flows into the Neva 1 . The mistake of a foreigner who probably wrote the book from memory is excusable (although, in essence, he is right: the Fontanka flows out of the Neva and flows into it), but where did the editor look when reading from I.E. Grabar that the Summer Palace "was built on a cape formed at the confluence of the Fontanka with the Neva" (however, I.E. Grabar himself was the editor of the publication) 2 .
A popular urban legend that the Moika was born in a kind of swamp and “did not have its own course” still lives. Its creator was the "first historian of St. Petersburg" A.I. Bogdanov: “Moika is a river that came out of the aforementioned Fontanka river, which was previously deaf, but in 1711, when channels were made at the Summer House, this river was connected to the Fontanka” 3. Modern authors do not doubt the existence of "impassable swamps (of course, impassable, what else!) in the area of the future Champ de Mars” 4 . It is easy to be convinced by looking at the Swedish maps of the 17th century. and the early plans of St. Petersburg that the Moika is a branch of the Fontanka. On the site of the Field of Mars there was a fir forest edge, enlarged in size to create a parade ground for fireworks and military parades (Big Meadow). Peter I preserved the remains of a spruce forest along the banks of the Neva, forbidding the cutting of trees in the reserved Spruce Grove.
In parentheses, we note the slip of the famous historian P.N. Petrov, who called the spruce forest pine. It would not be worth mentioning this mistake if it were not repeated by the author of the pamphlet on the Field of Mars 5 . The spruce forest thinned out when the Post Office Yard was built on the banks of the Neva in 1714, and in 1719 the Gallery in the Spruce Grove was built. The grove still existed in the middle of the 18th century, judging by the report of the death of several trees in it during the flood in 1744.
“Old people remember,” wrote I.G. Georgi, that in the places where the Stables Yard and the Kazan Church are now, there was an alder swamp forest and roads paved with brushwood” 6 .
In 1999, while landscaping the square near the Kazan Cathedral, we discovered the foundation of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin (the first Kazan Cathedral). At a depth of 1.8 m, in a layer of swampy soil, bast shoes, leather shoes and other items of the first inhabitants of Perevedenskaya Sloboda were well preserved. And the finds of hazelnut shells point to thickets of hazel in the "impenetrable" swamp.
The history of the mythical river Lebedinka testifies how St. Petersburg legends are born. “In 1711,” writes P.Ya. Cannes, - on the site of the Lebedinka River they dug the Lebyazhy Canal” 7 . On P.Ya. Kann is cited by the author of the capital monograph “Prehistory of St. Petersburg” A.M. Sharymov: The Swan Canal is named after the ancient river Lebedinka, which used to flow from the Moika region to the Neva. Let us forgive the author of this outstanding work an involuntary reservation: in such a place, below the Fontanka, the river could not flow into the Neva. By what miracle was it possible to reverse its movement, turning it into a channel?!
However, G.I. Zuev has no doubts about the possibility of such a miracle and even specifies that the small river Lebedinka was born in the same place as the Moika, a huge swamp. “The vast swamps then came close to the swampy massif, on which, by order of the tsar, specialists sent from abroad created the first Summer Garden - the summer residence of Emperor Peter Alekseevich” 9 . And Peter settled the poor queen right in the middle of an impenetrable swamp!
If there was such a river, then it could only flow from the Neva. Where did she fall into? The notorious swamp would immediately turn into a huge lake, more precisely, into the lagoon of the Gulf of Finland. One can also say this: if there was the Lebedinka River, there would be no St. Petersburg. But it worked out. Where did the mythical Swan come from? According to P.N. Petrov, in his time (1880s) this was the name of the Swan Canal. “In addition to the grotto,” wrote the historian of St. Petersburg, “a canal was opened from the Neva to the Moika, near the Summer Garden, now called the Lebedyanka River” 10 .
For his residence, the king chose a unique natural conditions, quite a high place. This is possible only in the delta of a high-water river: the Fontanka flows from the Neva almost at a right angle. And again, the Moika flows out of it at almost the right angle. It only remained to connect the Neva and the Moika with a canal to make an island on which Peter decided to establish his estate.
When was the Summer Garden founded?The date of foundation of the Summer Garden is considered to be 1704. Its official character was reinforced by the celebration in 2004 of the 300th anniversary of the oldest regular garden in Russia. Let's open the encyclopedia "St. Petersburg", which was published just in the year when a significant anniversary was celebrated. It turns out that “the construction of the Summer Garden began during the construction of the stone Summer Palace of Peter I (1712), and was completed in 1725.” eleven . In the "History of the City Manual" intended for students, it is reported that the garden "was planted by decree of Tsar Peter I in 1711" 12 . Here is F.A. Polunin wrote that the royal garden was built in 1711, at the same time as the construction of the Summer Palace 13 . However, there is a lot of evidence that the garden had already been planted by that time. Suffice it to recall the frequently quoted diary of the Danish envoy Just Juhl, in which on May 27, 1710 it is written: including the busts of the late King Sobieski of Poland and his wife” 14 .
The relative position of the House and the Summer Palace of Peter I on the banks of the Neva
The “official” date is based on the fact that on March 25, 1704, Peter I sent a letter from St. Petersburg to Timofey Streshnev with a request to send seeds and seedlings of flowers from the village of Izmailovo near Moscow: flowers from Izmailovo little by little, but send more of those that smell with a gardener to Petersburg. In response, on June 29, Streshnev writes that “according to your letter, your sovereign sent flowers to St. Petersburg with a gardener. And how many things have been sent, and what will be sent in the future, and why not sent, and about that he wrote to Alexander Danilovich is authentic. “June has come, even this, even spit,” says folk wisdom. Streshnev's letter reached the tsar in July, when his thoughts were occupied not with flower seedlings, but with the storming of Dorpat. And the history of the summer residence of Peter I did not begin with planting flowers. Archaeological excavations have shown that the laying out of the garden was preceded by adding soil and correcting coastline Not you. If in the spring of 1704 there was talk of planting flowers, it means that the preparatory work on planning the garden began as early as 1703. So A.D. Menshikov (should he know!) testified that the Summer House was "built in 703" 17 . The evidence of such an authoritative person is indisputable, but, one wonders, when exactly was the residence founded? Preparing for the capture of the Swedish fortress of Nyenschanz, “on the 28th day (April 28, 1703, old style) in the evening, the Sovereign, like a Bombing Captain, with 7 companies of the guard, including 4 Preobrazhensky, and with 3 Semenovsky managed, went by water to 60 boats past the city to inspect the Neva mouth and to occupy it from the arrival of the enemy from the sea "18. Nienschanz capitulated on May 1, and the very next day, Peter again sailed along the Neva to the very seaside, thinking about where to build a fortress, a shipyard, where to settle himself. The king needed shelter on the two banks of the river. The Swedish estate attracted attention primarily for its unique location on a cape formed by the Neva and its branch. On the other side of the Neva on May 13 (24) -15 (26) they built the Tsar's wooden house, which has survived to this day - "Red Mansions". However, the sovereign did not immediately settle in it. “During the whole of May and June 1703,” writes Sharymov, “Peter I was signing both letters and decrees during all this time,“ from the camp, at Schlotburg, ”as the location of the regiments was called on both Okhty, at Nien-Schanz” 19 . It is not known when exactly in 1703 the royal mansions were erected in the former estate of Konau, but, of course, it is no coincidence that both royal houses on the banks of the Neva were opposite each other.
According to legend, A.D. Menshikov proposed to the tsar that a Swedish house from among the survivors in Nyene be moved to Gorodovoy Island. Undoubtedly, it was in the order of things. However, Peter did not follow his advice. He attached a symbolic meaning to the laying of his house, and therefore pine trees cut down in the same place went to him. The cape, which Peter liked at the source of the Fontanka, was formed by nature itself, and, therefore, the choice of a place for a house on Gorodovy Island was predetermined. If the tsar deliberately placed his two houses facing each other, then a logical conclusion can be drawn: the mansions on the Vyborg side appeared after Peter chose a place for his residence on the opposite bank of the Neva.
Menshikov set up his mansions on the banks of the Neva in exactly the same manner: one on Vasilyevsky Island, the second - exactly opposite, on the Admiralty side.
Manor KonauIn the Novgorod scribes and salary books of the late 15th - early 16th centuries, the Russian village Usadishche is mentioned on the site of the Summer Garden. It was probably a prominent settlement, since the name passed to the estate of a Swedish subject, German merchant Bernhard Steen von Steenhusen. In 1638, the Swedish Queen Christina presented him with vast lands in the lower reaches of the Neva, on its left bank. Swedish researchers found that after the death of Bernhard in 1648 or 1649, the estate passed to his daughter, Maria Elisabeth, who married Joachim von Conau, a native of Germany. In 1662, their son Erich-Berndt von Konau inherited the estate. At the age of 20, he left the service in the Swedish Navy and settled on his estate, where, according to researchers, he planted a garden "in the Dutch style" 20 . On the Swedish map of the Neva banks by Carl Eldberg (1701), the estate "Konos hoff" is shown on the site of the future Summer Garden. The local name "Konova Manor" sounds quite Russian; It is no coincidence that there was a legend that a certain Swedish major Konau was actually a Russian nobleman Konov, who had transferred to the service of the Swedish king, which was allowed under the terms of the peace treaty between Russia and Sweden concluded in 1613 in the village of Stolbovo. When the Russian troops approached Nienschanz, Erich-Berndt von Konau fled to Sweden and settled in Stockholm. His grandchildren, having received the Swedish nobility, are represented in the Knight's House under the surname "Konov". Surnames ending in "ov" are not uncommon among the Germans: Rakov, Bryulov, Belov, Treskov ... By the way, Peter I was familiar with a certain Hamburg merchant Peter Kononov, from whom, according to a nominal imperial decree in 1724, "Piedmontese martial waters" were ordered » 21 . The fate of the Konau manor house is not known for certain. It is possible that Peter I ordered the mansions left by the owners to be moved to the very bank of the Neva, to the place where the Summer Palace was subsequently placed.
The Summer Garden is the favorite brainchild of Peter I, a pearl in the park necklace of St. Petersburg. It is a branch of the Russian Museum. In 1704, Peter I ordered a large garden to be laid out for himself, and after a few years of its existence, the Summer Garden became the center of political and official life, court ceremonies and celebrations.
The layout of the garden is simple: three parallel straight alleys lead from the Neva deep into the territory, they are crossed by several perpendicular ones. The Neva and Fontanka rivers became the natural boundary of the garden from the north and east. In the west and south, the garden is limited by artificial channels - the Swan Canal and the canal that connected the Fontanka with the source of the Moika River. Northern part garden, adjacent to the palace and more formally equipped, was called the First Summer Garden. The southern part, in which, along with garden ideas, there were outbuildings and an orchard, was called the Second Summer Garden.
In accordance with the rules of elegant gardening, the alleys of the Summer Garden were completely lined with evenly trimmed shrubs. The alleys of the First Summer Garden were decorated with marble statues and busts brought from Italy. At the intersection of the central alley with the side alleys, fountains were beating.
On the banks of the Fontanka, a Grotto was built - the first garden building of its kind in Russia. Entering the Grotto was met by the mysterious realm of the sea god, illuminated by the rays of the sun penetrating through the light lantern. Reflected in the large mirrors of the niches, the fountains of Tritons murmured... The gilded chariot of Neptune towered on a mountain built of various stones and shells, symbolizing Peter I, a lion, personifying Sweden, languished in a cave under the mountain. A large area of the Second Summer Garden was occupied by the Labyrinth, on the paths of which fountains were placed with gilded lead sculptural groups on the subjects of Aesopian fables.
A significant part of the garden was occupied by buildings. In the northeast corner of the garden was Peter's Summer Palace, and in the northwest corner, near the Neva and the Swan Canal, symmetrically to the Summer Palace of Peter I, the Second Summer Palace was built with services for Peter's wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. Unfortunately, both buildings have not survived to this day.
By the time of the reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the trees had grown and strengthened, the fountains were functioning properly. The flower beds of a complex geometric pattern were re-arranged - parterres located along the Swan Canal opposite the facade of the Second Summer Palace. From the south, the parterre section was closed by the Amphitheater - a cascade decorated with sculptural busts of Roman emperors. The main construction moved at that time beyond the Moika, to the territory of the Third Summer Garden - a modern Mikhailovsky Garden and a garden around the Mikhailovsky Castle.
The heyday of the Summer Garden, which took place in the second half of the 18th century, gradually became a thing of the past. Europe was carried away by landscape parks, the old regular gardens fell out of fashion. The fate of the Summer Garden was aggravated by the devastating flood of 1777, from which plantings, statues, and fountains were badly damaged. Catherine II ordered the plantings to be restored and the fountains to be dismantled. By the beginning of the 19th century, the garden had lost many statues, all old inventions and entertainment facilities. Of the former buildings, only Peter's Summer Palace and the dilapidated Grotto remained. At the same time, in the era of Catherine II, the Summer Garden received a new decoration - a magnificent fence.
In the 19th century The summer garden is becoming a favorite place for walks of the townspeople. It continues to develop already as a public city garden "for a decently dressed public." By order of Emperor Nicholas I, great work is being done in the garden.
In 1826, the remains of the Grotto were rebuilt as a coffee house. In 1827, a wooden Tea House was erected nearby. From the side of the Moika, the garden is surrounded by a cast-iron fence. In 1839, a porphyry vase was placed at the southern gate of the garden - a gift to Nicholas I from the Swedish king Karl Johann XIV. The vase was made in the city of Elfdalen (Sweden) and is called Elfdalen.
In 1855, a monument to I. A. Krylov was erected on one of the garden sites - it was the first monument to a writer in Russia. In 1917, the Summer Garden lost the status of "imperial". In the flood of 1924, up to six hundred trees died in the garden, statues and busts were overturned and damaged. Since 1934, the directorate of the Summer Garden and the Palace-Museum of Peter I have been engaged in the restoration of the garden.
At the beginning of the Great Patriotic War within two months the statues and busts were hidden in the ground. An anti-aircraft battery was located in the garden. After the war, the Summer Garden was completely restored. Statues and busts returned to their places.
In 2009–2011, the garden underwent a comprehensive restoration.
Working mode:
- from May 1 to September 30: from 10:00 to 22:00;
- from October 1 to March 31 from 10:00 to 20:00;
- from April 1 to April 30: closed to dry.
- Tuesday is a day off.
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The Summer Palace of Peter I is considered one of the oldest buildings in St. Petersburg. The house is in a very beautiful place called the Summer Garden. This park was laid out at the beginning of the 18th century, when northern capital just started building up. To work on your summer residence Peter I invited eminent architects and garden masters. The king dreamed of building a Versailles-style garden here. Looking ahead, let's say that he succeeded and until now the Summer Garden remains one of the favorite places for tourists and residents of the city to relax.
The Summer Palace of Peter I in St. Petersburg is not splendid. This is a very modest building in the Baroque style, quite unlike the royal mansions.
Peter chose the place for the Summer Palace between the Neva and the Fontanka (in those years - the Nameless Yerik), just where the estate of the Swedish major Erich von Konow was located. It was here that a small two-story stone house was built according to the project of the architect Domenico Trezzini. True, initially Peter made the plan of the house on his own, and Trezzini only corrected it. It should be noted that the Summer Palace of Peter I is not distinguished by pomp. This is a very modest building in the Baroque style, quite unlike the royal mansions. The layout of both floors is exactly the same. There are only 14 rooms, 2 kitchens and 2 internal corridors. On the first floor there were rooms of the king, on the second - his wife Catherine. The owners used this house only in the warm season - from May to October. That is why the Summer Palace of Peter I has thin walls and single frames in the windows. The facade of the palace is decorated with 28 bas-reliefs depicting the events of the Northern War.
On the roof of the Summer Palace of Peter I there is a copper weather vane in the form of St. George the Victorious slaying a snake. The weather vane sets in motion the mechanism of the wind device located inside the house. The wind direction and strength were indicated on a special instrument panel. This device, unusual for that time, Peter I ordered in Dresden from the court mechanic.
Despite the external simplicity, the Summer Palace of Peter I had everything that was required for the needs of the sovereign. In the waiting room, he read letters, dealt with complaints, and occasionally received visitors. In the neighborhood there was a lathe and a machine tool, for which Peter worked, a bedroom, a dressing room, a kitchen, a dining room and a large assembly room. For the guilty, a punishment cell was provided. The interior decoration of the palace in allegorical form glorified the victory of Russia over the Swedes in the Northern War. On the second floor were Catherine's bedroom, a nursery, a room for ladies-in-waiting and a separate room for dancing.
Interestingly, in the Summer Palace of Peter I, a sewage system was equipped - the very first in all of St. Petersburg. The building was washed from three sides with water, which entered the house with the help of pumps. The flow of the Fontanka River served as the driving force behind the sewage system.
Next to the palace is another building - Human chambers. Here was located the famous Amber Room, a huge library and numerous collections of various things that Peter collected. For example, the anatomical collection of the Dutch scientist Ruysch was kept in the Human Chambers. In fact, this house housed a large museum: here the king brought various curiosities, mechanisms, many compasses, astronomical instruments, stones with inscriptions, household items of different peoples and much, much more.
Its main function country residence Tsar's Summer Palace performed until the middle of the 18th century. Then officials began to use it. For some time the palace even stood abandoned. This is what saved it from restructuring. In 1934, the historical and art museum was located here. The building was damaged during the Great Patriotic War. But a large-scale reconstruction in the mid-50s of the 20th century helped to completely restore the palace. Today the residence of the tsar is part of the Russian Museum, anyone can go inside and find out how Peter I lived.
Practical Information
Address of the Summer Garden: St. Petersburg, Kutuzova Embankment, 2. The nearest metro station is Gostiny Dvor. Entrance to the garden is free, opening hours - from 10.00 to 20.00. Day off - Tuesday.