List of all cities of ancient Greece. Cities of ancient greece

Parthenon History of Greece Prehistoric Greece (before the XXX century BC) ... Wikipedia

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Astronomy Ancient Greece astronomical knowledge and the views of those people who wrote in ancient Greek, regardless of the geographical region: Hellas itself, the Hellenized monarchies of the East, Rome or early Byzantium. Covers ... ... Wikipedia

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Plato Ancient Greek philosophy is one of the two largest branches of ancient philosophy, which arose in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. e. and existed until the very end of antiquity. To ancient Greek philosophy on ideas, methods and ... ... Wikipedia

homoerotic scene. Painting on a black-figure vessel, ca. 540 BC In science repeatedly ... Wikipedia

Red-figure pelika of the vase painter Polygnotus. A young man pays off with a hetero. OK. 430 BC er ... Wikipedia

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- (Δωρις) 1) a small (about 200 km) mountainous region in the center of central Greece, between Eta and Parnassus, bordering Aetolia, Phokis and both Lokrids and irrigated by the upper course of Kefis (now the Mavroneri) and its tributary Pindus. Initially… … Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

Books

• Legends and Myths of Ancient Greece: Gods, Kun Nikolai Albertovich. Nikolai Albertovich Kun (1877-1940) - Russian historian and writer. On the mother's side, he came from an old noble family, in the father's family (the surname Kuhn is German) there were German and ...
• Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. Argonauts, Kun Nikolai Albertovich. Nikolai Albertovich Kun (1877-1940) - Russian historian and writer. On the mother's side, he came from an old noble family, in the father's family there were German and Anglo-Scottish roots (surname ...

Athens

Athens is the capital of the Greek state, one of the oldest cities in the world, which got its name from the goddess of knowledge and wisdom. For the entire civilized world, this city is a symbol of freedom, democracy and art. In the center of the city is the "pearl" of Greece - the Acropolis with its masterpiece of architecture the Parthenon and Mount Lycabettus with the picturesque church of St. George. The temple of the Virgin Athena, the patroness of the city, majestically rises above the city and is clearly visible from any point in it. The theater of Dionysus, located on the southern slope of the Acropolis, was part of the sanctuary of Dionysus, now partially restored, the site of the Athens festival. Areopagus, a low hill northwest of the Acropolis, the leveled platform on top of which served as a meeting place for the Council of Elders - the highest judicial body of the ancient Athenian state. No less important monuments of Athens are Keramikos, where the ashes of famous Athenians are buried. The Lantern of Diogenes, the Tower of the Winds, the Arch of Hadrian - this is a small list of what you can see in Athens. The surroundings of the most ancient capital of Europe are also rich in sights. The burial mound called Marathon is the location of the museum in honor of the soldiers who fell in the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. At Cape Sounion you can see the temple of Poseidon and the ruins of the temple of Athena. Modern Athens lives a dynamic and eventful life. It is noisy and temperamental, like its inhabitants, the city. The contrasts of the Greek capital only emphasize its charm. The pandemonium in the center contrasts with the almost rustic appearance of the suburbs. From three to four in the afternoon, the city falls asleep - for the Greeks, an afternoon siesta is as sacred as a weekend trip to relatives in the village. Athens comes to life by night - the halls of theaters and the Palace of Music are filled. Wherever you go - the trendy disco in Kolonaki, the hectic bistros in Exarchs, the taverns and taverns in Pira - there is dancing and fun everywhere. The capital of Greece is interesting not only for lovers and connoisseurs of history. At a short distance from the city there is a strip luxurious beaches known as the "Athenian Riviera". Athens is a city of amazing destiny, having experienced periods of prosperity and decline, greatness and humiliation in its history.

The groups of Indo-Europeans, which were the main core of the formation of the Greek nationality, during the Middle Helladic era mixed with the pre-Greek population of continental Greece in ethnic and linguistic terms. In linguistic terms, the result of this process was a series of rapid changes that significantly changed the phonetic structure of the language (primarily consonants), and also replaced a very significant number of ancient Indo-European words with vocabulary borrowed from the Aegean substrate. As a result, in the second half of the II millennium BC. e. the most ancient Greek language arose, retaining the Indo-European grammatical structure, but its vocabulary was already significantly different from the Indo-European proto-linguistic basis.

The newcomers were also powerfully affected by the culture of the conquered pre-Greek population. Thus, when in the XVI century. BC e. mainland Greece of the era of the Mycenaean shaft tombs again becomes at the head of the development of the Aegean civilization, the Greek newcomers already exercise control over almost the entire Helladic region, but their own culture is still only halfway to the full synthesis, into which the ancient Indo-European, original Helladic and specific Crete-Minoan elements should eventually enter on the territory of the Aegean.

The abundance of treasures found in the shaft tombs of Mycenae is an interesting piece of evidence reflecting the structure and economic level of early Mycenaean society. It is evidence of the rapid accumulation of property that took place in the political centers of individual regions, and at the same time evidence of far-reaching social differentiation. The representatives of the ruling class buried in the shaft tombs were undoubtedly famous warriors, as evidenced by the valuable weapons found in the tombs, and their remains are characterized by anthropological features that are different from the older population of the Mediterranean type (powerful physique, over 180 cm tall). At their disposal were experienced artisans of various professions. This is evidenced by the finds of objects of material culture, confirming the existence of a significant differentiation of the craft. Economic ties with other countries are also indicative, especially with Crete and the Asia Minor coast, as well as with the Middle East, the cultural world of ancient Italy, and even with Western and Central Europe. A number of finds already indicate a significant degree of synthesis of local and foreign artistic techniques, primarily the interaction of elements of the culture of the mainland with the influence of the refined culture of Minoan Crete.

The appearance of shaft graves of the 16th century. BC e. marks the exit of the Mycenaean civilization onto the main path of development of the history of world culture, but this was only the beginning of an unprecedented rise of this civilization. Such a rapid accumulation of treasures in shaft tombs seems to a number of researchers already so unexpected and amazing in comparison with the modest Middle Helladic past that many tend to talk about the appearance of these treasures in the Aegean from somewhere outside.

For example, some scholars believe that around 1600 BC. e. there could have been a campaign of mainland Achaean warriors to Crete, from where they returned home with rich booty. However, no traces of an enemy invasion dating back to that time have been found in Crete. At the same time, the growth of the economic potential of the Mycenaeans continues in the subsequent period, and so intensively that it cannot be explained as a result of robbery alone, even on a large scale.

Other researchers, in turn, believe that some objects from shaft tombs reveal certain features pointing to Egypt, and they are trying to link the ancient Greek legend about the arrival of Danae in Argolis from North Africa with the established fact that it was in the 17th century. BC e. Egypt experienced serious upheavals of a political nature. At the end of the XVIII century. BC e. from the Caucasus and the mountains of Armenia, a destructive wave of militant Semitic peoples moved through the entire Middle East, using hitherto unknown military equipment - war chariots pulled by horses. One part of them crushed the military power of Babylon, and the other - the so-called Hyksos - penetrated at the turn of the 18th and 17th centuries. BC e. into the Nile Delta and took possession of most of Egypt for more than a century. The similarity of dates here is truly striking: the end of the Hyksos rule in Egypt falls on the time around 1560 BC. e., the arrival of Danae in Argolis "Paros marble" refers to 1510 BC. e., and the richest tombs of grave circle A in Mycenae date back to 1550-1500. BC e. All this led to the hypothesis that a detachment of Mycenaean warriors took part in the last battles with the Hyksos in Egypt, was generously rewarded for their service and returned home with a group of Egyptian associates.

This hypothesis is very attractive and rather witty, but at the same time it does not have reliable confirmation by the data of material culture. On the contrary, as a result of a detailed analysis of the Egyptian features of the objects from the shaft tombs, it was established that, undoubtedly, we are talking about things that clearly also have features inherent in Minoan products, so that none of them suggests the need for the existence of direct Egyptian-Mycenaean contacts. The mediating role of Crete played a decisive role in the appearance and further fate of these objects on the mainland. The same can be said about a number of other finds made in shaft tombs. Therefore, at present, most researchers are inclined to think that the appearance of the treasures of the shaft tombs was the result of the successful economic policy of the local Mycenaean rulers.

However, all this does not at all exclude the possibility of the existence of direct ties with Egypt and, in general, with the entire Near East, since it was precisely by the time around the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. oral tradition dates the appearance of a number of other central figures of the early layer of Greek mythology, connected in their origin with the East. In addition to Danae, these were, in particular, Cadmus and Pelops. And this is not at all a mere accident, but a real reflection of the most ancient ties that existed between the Aegean and the Near East in the 17th-16th centuries. BC e. It also seems that these legendary figures could be associated with the appearance of certain material values ​​in the Aegean. In all likelihood, they were the bearers of various knowledge and experience of an organizational, economic and technical nature, and when over time they really began to play that prominent role in political life that Greek mythology ascribes to them, they undoubtedly achieved a much faster and, most importantly, more stable accumulation of material values ​​in the early centers of Mycenaean culture than could be achieved by a single military campaign.

The tendencies towards the interaction of the Helladic and Minoan cultures, already traced in the finds from the shaft tombs of Mycenae, are especially intensified in the second Late Helladic period (PE II), covering almost the entire 15th century BC. e. This was a historical stage, characterized, unfortunately, by the lack of more detailed information about the construction of palaces and settlements of that time, since the archaeological layers of this period for the most part disappeared without a trace under later layers. It is possible that the beginning of the existence of some economically important structures, which, in particular, are the irrigation systems of Boeotia and Argolis, dates back to this time. We are quite well informed, again, about the methods of burial. Domed tombs, which in the previous century were found mainly in the west of the Peloponnese, are beginning to appear also in the Mycenae region, and although most of them have been plundered, they indicate by their architectural splendor the wealth and noble birth of the rulers and other representatives of the ruling class of that time.

The period of PE II is usually divided into two stages. At the beginning of the century, Crete continued to be an important economic and cultural factor in the Aegean, from where even at that time many artistic products were exported to the mainland. In the same way, continental ceramics continue to be strongly influenced by the naturalistic style of Crete of the PM II B period, which is characterized by an appeal to maritime themes.

However, this influence belongs to the last in a long series of phenomena that testify to the outstanding contribution of the Cretan civilization to the treasury of Helladic culture. A few decades later, but the entire southern part of the Aegean was swept by a wave of strong earthquakes. The destruction they caused reached its highest point in a catastrophic eruption on the island of Thera around 1470 BC. e., as a result of which the island split, and its remains were covered with a multi-meter layer of lava. This eruption was so powerful that, having inflicted a mortal wound on the centuries-old Minoan civilization that had existed in Crete since the end of the Neolithic and subjecting the remaining population of the island to unexpected hardships, its consequences eventually made Crete politically and economically dependent on the Mycenaean Achaeans.

At the same time, Crete was not the only island affected by the eruption of the Fersky volcano. In particular, the destruction of the recent open city near Ayia-Irini on Keos dates back to the same chronological period. It remains unknown what language the local population spoke - Minoan (Ancient Cretan) or Mycenaean (Greek).

It goes without saying that the Thera-Cretan catastrophe caused the disappearance of Cretan influence on the mainland. However, fortunately, these destructions occurred at a time when the Mycenaean culture of the mainland Achaeans was already capable of independent life, and therefore the next decades of the 15th century. BC e. were the period when the final fusion of the Minoan and Helladic elements in the final Mycenaean synthesis takes place in the Aegean. This applies not only to ceramics, but also to other products of applied art.

The establishment of the fact of the disastrous effect of the eruption of the Thera volcano on the Cretan civilization also allows us today to form a certain idea of ​​how the Achaeans then took possession of Knossos. Contrary to the previously existing point of view, the Achaeans probably appeared here not as conquerors who conquered the Cretan cities, and not as a squad accompanying the Achaean prince to the heir to the throne of Knossos, but as a naval reconnaissance expedition in order to find out the possibility of a settlement in Crete, which was subjected to the severe consequences of the Thera eruption. And since Knossos largely escaped destruction in the literal sense of the word and was only covered with ashes, the Achaeans quickly turned it into a political center of their power, but at the same time they, of course, relied on the support of the local population that survived the disaster. Knossos of this time is characterized by a close adherence to more ancient Cretan traditions and at the same time the influence of a wide variety of influences coming from the mainland.

It seems that, along with Knossos, some other Cretan centers also survived the Ther-Cretan catastrophe, which continued to remain dependent on central government Knossos and during the reign of the Achaeans. This conclusion follows primarily from the analysis of the toponymic data contained in the texts on the Knossos tablets, which include such names as Amnis, Tullis (later Tyliss) in the central part of northern Crete, Festus in the south of the island, Lukt (later Litt) in the eastern part, Lato further to the east, two places in the extreme east (wa-to = later Paleokastro?, o-du-ro-we = 3akros?) and Ku donia in the west of the island (later Kydonia, modern Chania). And then the circumstance noted above that agricultural products in these and other areas of Crete around 1380 BC. e. again reached a significant rise, expressively testifies to the overcoming of the economic stagnation caused by the volcanic eruption on Thera that happened a little less than a century earlier. Thus, it is likely that some of the administrative centers of Crete again rose from the ruins, but were already under the dominion of the Achaean newcomers, who by that time had established their dominance on the island.

Such was the appearance of Crete during the periods of PM II (about 1470-1400 BC) and PM III A (about 1400-1380 BC). At this time, the throne room of the Knossos Palace received its currently known appearance, the tombs of warriors with Mycenaean weapons appeared near Knossos, palace-style ceramics were made in Knossos itself, revealing a significant similarity with the ceramics of mainland Greece.

But soon, around 1380 BC. e. there is the final death of this newly rebuilt Knossos palace. As to how this happened, researchers have never agreed. Was this the result of an earthquake, an uprising of the Cretans against the Achaeans, or an attack by the mainland Achaeans on their Knossosian tribesmen who had settled in Crete two or three generations earlier? Oddly enough, some scientists today again returned to the already traditional explanation of the catastrophes that occurred in Crete by an earthquake. The theory of internal clashes is now rejected by most researchers, since it seems incredible that their consequences could affect Crete to such an extent that the victorious side was not able to rebuild at least some of the destroyed centers. In addition, objects of material culture of small forms were made in Crete later, and at approximately the same level as before the destruction of the palaces.

Recently, scientists have again begun to return to the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe invasion of the mainland Achaeans, but only as additional reason final decline of Knossos. At first glance, this idea is rather absurd. If Crete had been under the rule of the Achaeans for several decades, then why did the Achaeans themselves suddenly need to destroy it? However, we should not forget that in the second half of the XV century. BC e. Crete was not a territory politically dependent on the mainland Achaeans, but an independent state, to one degree or another a direct successor of the ancient Minoan traditions. Despite a significant reduction in the export of its goods, Crete at that time continued to be a serious commercial competitor to continental Greece in the Mediterranean markets, and this could not suit the mainland Achaeans. Given these circumstances, the latter's sudden invasion of Knossos was quite logical. But it has not yet been possible to prove this.

Therefore, the only seemingly acceptable way out is to link the above events with the earthquake hypothesis. If around 1380 BC. e. a natural disaster really occurred in Crete and the news reached Mycenae that Knossos (and possibly other Cretan settlements) had been turned into ruins, it is unlikely that the mainland Achaeans were interested in their restoration. Most likely, the Achaeans would have done everything possible to prevent this and eliminate such a dangerous rival as Crete from economic life, even if its ruling class already spoke Greek.

However, even after that, Crete continued to be part of the Aegean world; he continued, although to a lesser extent, to participate in the economic and cultural life Aegean. Of course, a part of the Achaean population, who spoke Greek, also remained in Crete. maintaining ties with the native mainland. We have already noted above that even after the fall of Knossos, Linear B continued to be used in Crete for quite a long time, as is clear from a number of Cretan texts dating chronologically from the destruction of Knossos to the end of the 13th century. BC e. This is evidenced primarily by inscriptions on fragments of vessels from Chania in western Crete and the nearby village of Mamelyuko, as well as one document from Knossos. This also includes the above-mentioned inscriptions on fragments of vessels found in the layers of the late 13th century. BC e. in Thebes, which are considered to be made in the east of Crete.

At present, it is becoming more and more obvious that the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. were not a time of complete political isolation of Crete from other regions of the Aegean, but a historical period during which the Achaean element continued to play a certain role. When a little later - at the end of the II millennium BC. e. - Greek Dorians appeared in Crete, who managed to significantly “dorize” Crete over the course of several centuries, their dialect still retained some features of the ancient Achaean dialect. And the most ancient, pre-Greek element has not been fully assimilated in Crete for quite a long time. As early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. inscriptions from East Cretan Pressos record a completely incomprehensible local language that has nothing to do with Greek and produces a very unusual impression, primarily with an excess of the “r” sound.

But let's leave Crete and return again to mainland Greece around 1400 BC. e. Dominance in Knossos taught the Achaeans a lot. First of all, they learned how to organize the system of palace administration, based on the written registration of individual economic processes. It is very possible that Linear B, which was used in Mycenaean Greece, originated sometime in the 16th century. BC e. and that on the mainland it had spread already at that time; however, it is undoubted that more than fifty years of practice of maintaining administrative records directly at Knossos contributed to the perfect mastery of the Mycenaeans in writing.

During the reign of the Achaeans in Knossos, their material culture also experienced an equally strong influence. Knossos, the city that the entire Aegean looked to as the center of Aegean enlightenment, fell into the hands of the Achaeans, and with it all the experience of the Cretans, accumulated here for centuries thanks to the existence of rich oriental and local traditions.

It is quite natural that in mainland Greece at the beginning of the second half of the 15th century. BC e. the following situation has arisen. The items produced here now reach such a high level that, in essence, they are not inferior to the Cretan samples. In the decorative arts, the Achaeans continued to be able epigones rather than original craftsmen, but here, too, by combining mainland traditions with various Minoan influences, they managed to achieve an admirable high level of artistic skill. At the same time, the Cretan influence was perceived not without creative rethinking, and the Achaean masters do not abandon their own traditions inherited from their ancestors, both in practical and aesthetic terms. So, in the architecture of dwellings, the megaron continues to remain the main element, and among the forms of funerary structures, the domed tomb and its simplified version, the chamber tomb, continue to hold the leading place.

As for trade contacts, in the XV century. BC e. the ties established in earlier times continue to develop and deepen, and by the end of the century, Achaean settlers settled in a number of areas of the Aegean, which had hitherto been the sphere of Cretan influence (Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor, the island of Rhodes, etc.).

By the 15th century or at the latest by the beginning of the 14th century. BC e. probably also include events that are reflected in a number of legends of the most ancient layer of Greek mythology, i.e. earlier than the "Trojan" layer, but at the same time somewhat later than that to which the very ancient myths about Danae, Cadmus and Pelops belonged. Among them are the myths about the Perseids, the predecessors of the Atrids on the throne of Mycenae, about Bellerophon, the ancestor of the Argos king Diomedes, about Neleus, the father of Nestor, and about some of the great joint accomplishments of the heroes of Greek mythology, also older than the Trojan War, such as the Argonauts’ campaign for the golden fleece or the hunt for the Calydonian boar. The temporal relationship between fathers and sons indicated in these legends in a number of cases should not be understood literally, but as the ratio of ancestors and descendants, between which there is a number of insignificant generations that have not left a trace in mythology. Thus, the older generations of the "fathers" probably seemed to the heroes of the Trojan War as semi-mythical, as the Achaean warriors near Troy seemed to Homer's contemporaries.

Decline of Knossos around 1380 BC e. had a number of other implications. Although about 70 years before this date Knossos had already become Achaean, the ancient Cretan traditions were preserved here later and even continued to have a significant influence on mainland Greece. After the destruction of Knossos, the Cretan influence is almost not noticeable, and the Helladic culture begins to develop along its own path, in which the traditional elements of the Minoan civilization appear in a completely transformed form.

The trend towards schematization, traced in Mycenaean art already in the previous period, is even more intensified in the XIV-XIII centuries. (PE III A-B). The images, which owe their origin to the naturalism that once existed in Crete, become, as they were, devoid of life. Thus, octopuses, represented on Cretan vases of the marine style of the PM I B period, acquire such a schematic form in Mycenaean ceramics that one can only see octopuses here with a rich imagination. But, on the other hand, around the middle of the XIV century. BC e. we unexpectedly encounter images of humans and animals on Mycenaean vessels. This, of course, testifies to the influence of the fresco paintings of the Mycenaean palaces, on which hunting and war scenes were one of the most favorite decorative motifs of that time. However, it should be immediately noted that some frescoes, especially of the last period of the Mycenaean palaces, are distinguished by a very low level of technical performance (extreme schematization or, conversely, excessive pedantry in depicting details, as well as the use of unnatural colors). On the contrary, some specific motifs in frescoes, such as the continuous frieze of military scenes in Mycenae, or the picture of men feasting at tables and the image of a singer in Pylos, introduce us to an atmosphere surprisingly close to the world of Homeric poems. This is no longer just the artist's play with traditional Cretan motifs, which takes place, for example, in the depiction of cult female processions, but an attempt to really reflect the life of the ruling class of Mycenaean society. Looking at these frescoes, it is not difficult to imagine how the son of Odysseus Telemachus enters the megaron of the Pylos Palace and sits down at the banquet table along with Nestor and his entourage (“Odyssey”, III.386-396).

Unlike the previous period, the XIV and XIII centuries BC. e. provide us with a number of very detailed information about Mycenaean architecture. We are talking about a historical period at the end of which the Mycenaean settlements for the most part already lay in ruins and were restored only in rare cases, and even then to a limited extent. However, it is rather difficult to determine exactly when one or another of the parts of palaces and residences that have survived to our time was built, since in palace complexes, as a rule, it is rather difficult to distinguish various restructurings that have been repeatedly carried out. So, during the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. at least three reconstructions were carried out in Mycenae. In the XIV century. BC e. the palace in Mycenae, until that time actually unfortified, was surrounded by powerful walls that reached up to the grave circle A, which, however, remained outside the fortifications. In the middle of the XIII century. BC e. the system of fortifications was expanded towards the southwest; grave circle A was included in the territory of the fortress, which, after the reconstruction, acquired its currently known form; At the same time, the Lion's Gate was also built. At the end of the XIII century. BC e. the territory of the fortress was enlarged due to the construction of the north-eastern ledge of the walls, which guarded the access to the water cistern. In Tiryns, the cyclopean walls were built only by the 14th-13th centuries. BC e. (also carried out in three stages). Powerful walls were erected at the same time in other Mycenaean settlements (Argos, Dendra, Athens, Gla, etc.). In the second half of the XIII century. BC e. even a protective wall is being built on the Isthmus of Corinth, which was supposed to cover the interior of the Peloponnese from attack from the sea. Regarding the burial structures, we note only that in the XIII century. BC e. they culminate in the appearance of domed tombs of exquisite architecture such as the "Treasury of Atreus" at Mycenae.

About who owned these powerful fortresses and who found his last peace in the magnificent tombs nearby, we can only speculate based on Greek mythology. If the mythological legends about the lords of the Mycenaean throne are taken literally, then somewhere during this period in Mycenae a change of dynasties took place: the power of the Perseids was inherited by the bloodthirsty Pelopids. In Messenia, about 1300 BC. e. on the site of an older settlement, a palace arose, the power in which belonged to the Neleid family from Thessaly.

Greek mythology also reports that the era we are considering already in itself required the existence of powerful fortresses with fortified approaches. During the previous few centuries of economic growth, their owners managed to accumulate many treasures: they had something to hide behind the powerful walls of their palaces. But on the other hand, the ghost of the same wealth, located in the neighbor's palace, pushed them onto the path of military rivalry. Obviously, this is how the intra-Achaean internecine conflict arose, which caused the destruction of the powerful city of Central Greece - the seven gates of Thebes. As we have already mentioned, these events were based on a dispute over power over Thebes between the sons of Oedipus Eteocles and Polynices. Since the brothers failed to comply with the original agreement on the successive change of power, Thebes became the target of two military campaigns. First, the troops of the seven leaders, gathered by the Argos king Adrast, came out against them. However, Thebes repelled this attack, and all seven enemy leaders died in battle. The city was captured and destroyed only a generation later, when the sons of the dead leaders opposed it, led by the grandson of Adrastus Diomedes, who later gained fame as one of the heroes of the Trojan War. All this suggests that the destruction of Thebes was the work of the generation of Achaean heroes who lived during the Trojan War. If this war took place around 1220-1210. BC e., which we will talk about below, then the fall of Thebes falls approximately in the third quarter of the 13th century. BC e., and the unsuccessful campaign of the seven leaders - in the second quarter of the same century.

The conclusion that the destruction of Thebes falls on the time around 1230 BC. e., until recently confirmed the results of research by archaeologists. However, today most of them believe that the Bronze Age Theban palace, the so-called Cadmea, was destroyed at the very end of the 13th century. BC e. This temporal inconsistency can be eliminated either by moving the date of the Trojan War to 1190-1180. BC e. (ancient dating of Eratosthenes), or by revising the chronology of Thebes (appropriately highlighting here several stages of destruction). But no matter how the problem of chronology is solved, there is no doubt that political reasons lie behind the destruction of Thebes. If four of the seven leaders of the first anti-Theban coalition were from Argolis - and Argolis had been the center of Helladic culture since the Early Bronze Age - then it was undoubtedly about razing Thebes, which was a dangerous competitor, to the ground. It is only strange that there is no mention of Mycenae in the legend, and Argos is named as the inspirer of the campaign. But this contradiction is explained by the conditions of the post-Mycenaean time mentioned above, when Mycenae were already in ruins, and Argos was a powerful center, which not only Argolis, but the entire Peloponnese had to reckon with.

But what is most noteworthy and, at the same time, especially characteristic of the period of PM III A-B, is the extremely intensive commercial expansion of the Mycenaeans, coming from mainland Greece to various extra-Hellenic regions. Geographically, the Mycenaean world is no longer limited to mainland Greece, but includes almost the entire Aegean and a number of other regions of the Mediterranean. The entire Mycenaean world in the broad sense of the word is characterized by a high level of standardization of material culture, which was reflected, in particular, in a significant degree of unification of Mycenaean ceramics, which is found in many areas of the Mediterranean - from Italy to Syria and Egypt. A certain exception to this unification is only the products of two outlying regions - Rhodes and Cyprus, as well as Southern Italy, where independent trade and production centers were formed with pottery workshops, and in some cases with a permanent Achaean population. During the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. Rhodes becomes completely an Achaean island and, together with even more remote Cyprus (where, apparently, Mycenaean trading posts, and soon after that centers of ceramics production, appear as early as the 14th century BC) plays a prominent role in the spread of the highly valued Helladic-Levantine ceramics on the east coast. mediterranean sea. At the same time, in the west, the Mycenaean settlement in Skoglio del Tonno, in the vicinity of ancient Tarentum, reached its peak, where Mycenaean ceramics of the Rhodes type were made.

In the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. a continuous stream of high-quality ceramic products from mainland Greece and other centers of Mycenaean pottery production is sent to all areas of the Eastern and Central Mediterranean. The intensive development of Mycenaean ties with the regions located in the west of the Asia Minor coast and the establishment of contacts with the powerful Hittite state in the center of Asia Minor belong to the same period.

As mentioned above, E. Forrer established in the Hittite texts from Bogazkoy a number of parallels between Hittite proper names and similar Greek proper names. The first place in this series is occupied by the name Ahkhiyava(or Ahichia), comparable to the Greek Achaivia and later Achaia - "Land of the Achaeans". According to the texts, the first Hittite king who came into contact with Ahkhiyava was Supilluliuma I (circa 1370-1330 BC). This ruler sent some person (perhaps even his own wife) to Ahkhiyava, which is interpreted as evidence of the ties that already existed between the two states by that time. The circumstance that, at a difficult moment for him, the Hittite ruler Mursili II (circa 1329-1300 BC) calls for the help of “the god Ahkhiyava and the god of the country Lazpash” should also be regarded, and especially the fact that at the Hittite court, together with his heir Muwatalli (circa 1300-1280 BC), two nobles were brought up noble Akhkhiyav youths, one of whom even came from the royal family of Akhkhiyava, and the second was a certain Tavagalava.

It is the second of these persons that is referred to in the lengthy message addressed to King Ahkhiyava by Muwatalli, which, although only partially preserved, clearly indicates the deterioration of Hittite-Ahkhiyav relations. The army of Tavagalava and the warriors of the Hittite king allegedly simultaneously entered the region of Lucca due to the fact that the population there asked for help first from Tavagalava, and then to the Hittite king. It came to diplomatic friction, which resulted in a military conflict, which ended in victory for the Hittites. Then a Hittite subject, a certain Piyamaratus, appears on the scene, who took 7,000 prisoners from the Hittite king and went with them to the city of Milavanda, which was obviously under the rule of King Ahkhiyava. The Hittite king demanded the extradition of Piyamaratus from the king Ahkhiyava, but, having received no answer, he entered Milavanda with his army. However, there he did not find either Piyamaratus, who had sailed from Milavanda by that time, or Tavagalava. Therefore, at the end of his message, Muwatalji insists that the king of Ahkhiyava should not allow Piyamaratus to use the territory of Ahkhiyava as a base for fighting the Hittites, and in this connection mentions some previous conflict related to the Vilus region, which was supposedly settled by a bilateral agreement.

The message was written in an unusually peaceful tone, apparently due to the fact that the residence of King Ahkhiyava was beyond the reach of the Hittite troops, i.e. was separated by sea from Milavanda - the possession of Ahkhiyava in Asia Minor. It is unlikely that at that time in Asia Minor there was an area that could with impunity disregard the power of the Hittites, as the king of Ahkhiyava did, hiding both Piyamaratus and Tavagalava. As for the location of Milavanda, at present, researchers fully agree with E. Forrer, who identifies Milavanda (or Milavata) with Miletus, a large Greek center on the western coast of Asia Minor (the more ancient Greek form of the name “Miletus” was Milvat, and the existence of a Mycenaean settlement on the territory of Miletus is archaeologically dated to the 15th century BC). The possibility of Ahkhiyava's penetration into the depths of Asia Minor is evidenced by the unambiguous indication of the Hittite king that during the battles with Tavagalava he refrained from destroying the fortress of Atria.

However, on the other hand, it is possible that the size of Ahkhiyava's possessions in Asia Minor was different at one time or another. This conclusion can be reached on the basis of the message of the Hittite king Hattusili III (circa 1275-1250 BC), addressed to Milavata, from which it follows that the ruler of this city was dependent on the central Hittite power. Whether at that time Milavanda was identical with Milavata or not, this city, one way or another, no longer belonged to the king of Ahkhiyava. The Hittite document of the time of Hattusili III, which speaks of the gifts of King Ahkhiyava to the King of the Hittites, also deserves mention.

The issue of the development of Hittite-Ahkhiyav relations, especially during the reign of the next Hittite king, Tudhaliya IV (about 1250-1220 BC), is not clear enough. A fragmentary text dates back to this time, which says that the population of the land near the Sekha River took up arms against the Hittites and that in connection with this, King Akhkhiyava personally visited the territory of Asia Minor, although it is difficult to say under what circumstances, and also on whose side he spoke. The document ends with a report about the defeat of the Hittite opponents. It seems that these actions of the Hittites were closely connected with the hostile actions of the broad anti-Hittite coalition led by the Ashshuv region, which we read about in another text, which obviously dates back to the same time. It gives a list of the names of twenty-two regions that opposed the Hittites. The first of these is Lucca (usually identified with the later Lycia in the southwest of Asia Minor), in the eighth place is Karkisha (in which they see Caria located further to the northwest), and the penultimate and last place occupied by Wilusia and Taruis. If these twenty-two regions are listed, as many scholars believe, in the direction from south to north, then Taruisa and Vilusia should have been located in the extreme northwest of Asia Minor, i.e. just where Troy or [V]ilion was located, the Greek toponymic names of which are associated with the Hittite forms of Taruis and Vilus[y]ya. Further, the text speaks of the defeat of the said coalition and the destruction of the center of the uprising Ashsuva - the area that gave, according to E. Forrer, the name of the entire continent, known in early Greek in the form of Asvia, and later Assia (Asia). However, we do not have any reliable information regarding the position that Ahkhiyava adhered to during this conflict.

Another interesting document of the time of Tudhaliya IV, containing part of the text of the agreement between Tudhaliya and the king of the Amurru region (Northern Syria), reports a ban on trade between Amurru and Assyria, which was then in hostile relations with the Hittites, as well as a ban on ships from Akhkhiyava to trade with Assyria. Thus, this document also confirms that Ahkhiyava was located by the sea and that maritime trade played an important role in its economy. The fact that at that time (or shortly after) the relations between the Hittites and Ahkhiyava were subjected to some serious tests is evidenced in the contract by one curious circumstance. It speaks of kings who were accorded a dignity equal to that of a Hittite king. And if initially in this part of the contract the kings of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria and Ahkhiyava were listed in turn, then the mention of the king of Ahkhiyava was erased.

The last Hittite document related to Akhkhiyava is the message of Arnuvanda IV (about 1220-1200 BC to a certain Madduvatta. Madduvatta was once expelled from his land by Attarissia - “a husband from the country of Ahkhiyava”, fled to the Hittite king Tudhaliya IV and received from him power over the region of Tsipasla in the neighborhood of Artsava ( somewhere in the southern part of Asia Minor). Attarissia pursued him there too, but the Hittite king again came to the aid of Madduwatta and returned his lands to him. However, later, already during the reign of Arnuwanda, Madduwatta set out together with his old enemy Attarissa against the Hittites and jointly launched an attack on the country of Alashia (the latter is usually identified with Cyprus). Arnuwanda regarded this as an action, in hostile to the Hittites, but Madduwatta allegedly objected that he did not know that Alashiya was in the sphere of interests of the Hittite state.

Thus, from our story about Akhkhiyav, it follows that the Hittite-Ahkhiyav relations, especially at the initial stage, were undoubtedly distinguished by the features of diplomatic good neighborliness, confirmed in a number of cases and close ties between representatives of the ruling dynasties, although from time to time it was broken by various frictions. The source of tension was, first of all, privately initiated (and probably only tacitly supported by the Ahkhiyav rulers) attempts by various Akhkhiyav adventurers to penetrate deep into Asia Minor and further to the east and southeast. The general tendency of the Hittites to maintain friendly relations in official politics can be explained by the difference in the territorial location of the two states: the power of the Hittites extended mainly to the interior regions of Asia Minor, while the main territory of the Ahkhiyav state was outside it.

A more specific determination of the location of Akhkhiyava is still impossible for us. It seems that Cyprus should be excluded from the list of possible places, since in the Hittite texts it appears under the name of Alashia. Of the Aegean islands, only Rhodes deserves attention. It is there that a significant part of scientists place Ahkhiyava. However, some researchers still put, after E. Forrer, an equal sign between Ahkhiyava and Mycenaean Greece as a whole, emphasizing that neither in Cyprus nor in Rhodes in the layers of the XIV-XIII centuries. BC e. no traces of any more or less significant political center of the palace type have been archaeologically attested. Probably closest to the truth are those who consider Ahkhiyava one of the coastal Achaean states that arose in the 15th century. BC e. in the eastern part of the Aegean and adjacent areas in connection with the needs of the economic activities of the Achaeans, whose economy was based on maritime trade, often combined with robbery and piracy. Rhodes, of course, was the most suitable for such conditions, the advantageous geographical position of which was determined by the proximity of the coast of Asia Minor and, at the same time, a safe distance from the main centers of the Hittite state.

Kastoria

ancient fabulous city located in Western Macedonia. Gives it a special beauty Mountain Lake volcanic origin Orestiada. Every traveler who visits this place is invariably admired by cozy residential areas with traditional streets, majestic mansions, Byzantine churches, painted with frescoes of amazing beauty.

This ancient city was founded in 840 BC, although according to other sources, its first inhabitants appeared here as early as the 20th century BC. led by the first semi-mythological king - the god Kekrop, with a human body and serpentine legs. By order of Kekrop, a "Kekrop wall" was erected, blocking the only passage to the Kastorian Peninsula, washed by the legendary lake Orestiada, named after the Hellenic leader Orestes of Argos (Southern Greece), who was persecuted by the Dorians back in the 11th-10th centuries BC. On the basis of the later destroyed "cecrop wall" in 525 AD. By order of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, a fortress wall and tower structures were erected, since the city of Kastoria during the period of the Byzantine Empire (III-IV centuries AD) was the western bastion of Byzantium. However, the medieval version of the name of the city is associated with the habitation of a large number of beavers in the lake and in translation from the ancient Greek language "castor" is a beaver. Fur coat production, first in Kastoria and later in its regions, was born, according to some scientists, already before the 14th century. The need for warm clothes for protection in the conditions of a pronounced continental climate with cold winters led to the production of fur products from the skins of an animal with thick hair. Since the 16th century, when the demand for furs increased, since the fur coat served not only as a protection against the cold, but was also an expression of the social welfare of its wearer, the furriers of Kastoria began to import raw materials in order to then supply the whole of Europe with finished products. By the 18th century, the fur coat had conquered the entire civilized world and already figured at the level of duty regarding women's fashion and partly men's. By that time, it was seen as an essential element of style and elegance. In 1894, the first machine for sewing fur pieces was brought to Kastoria (because before that labor was manual), and thus the mechanization of the fur industry was established, which could not help stepping along with technological innovations. That is why Kastoria is also known as a world-renowned center for fur production. Since this industry began to develop here back in the days of the Byzantine Empire, even the most demanding buyer will certainly find a fur coat to his liking.

The city has preserved more than 72 churches of the Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods with the rarest frescoes of the Cretan art school, to which Theophanes the Greek belongs. The most popular is the temple of the Holy Mother of God Mavriotisa (XI century) on the shore of Lake Orestiada near a thousand-year-old plane tree.

Heraklion

The capital of Crete is one of the largest cities in Greece. Its history goes back over 2.5 thousand years. One of the most famous monuments of the ancient civilization of Crete, the Palace of Knossos, is located 5 km from the city. Of great interest is Archaeological Museum Heraklion, which collected a rich collection of exhibits from Knossos, Phaistos, Mal. Once Heraklion was the most important port of the Venetians in the eastern Mediterranean. The powerful defensive walls of the 16th century, built around the city, have survived to this day. Venetian fortress, Morosini Fountain, Church of St. Mark, Loggia - the main attractions of old Heraklion. Today the city of Heraklion is a major seaport, shopping and tourist center. The resorts of Heraklion and northeast Crete offer all conditions for have a great holiday. 20 km from the city near the resort villages of Gouves and Stalida on sandy coast located modern hotels and a water park. 34 km east of Heraklion is tourist centre Mala. 3 km from the city, you can visit the ruins of the Minoan palace, where a piece of jewelry depicting a bee was found, which is the talisman of Crete and is still being made by the jewelers of the island. On the western coast of Malya Bay, 26 km from Heraklion, there is one of the most popular resorts northern Crete Hersonissos, which is famous for its magnificent beaches and big amount shops, bars, restaurants and discos that attract thousands of tourists, especially young people.

Sparta Σπάρτη

Sparta (ancient Greek Σπάρτη, lat. Sparta) - ancient state in Greece in the region of Laconia in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the valley of the Evrotas river.

State structure

Ancient Sparta is an example of an aristocratic military camp state, which, in order to suppress the huge mass of the forced population (helots), artificially restrained the development of private property and unsuccessfully tried to maintain equality among the Spartans themselves. At the heart of the emergence of the state in Sparta, usually attributed to the VIII-VII centuries. BC e., lay the general patterns of decomposition of the primitive communal system. The organization of political power among the Spartans was typical of the period of the collapse of the primitive communal system: two tribal leaders (perhaps as a result of the unification of the Achaean and Dorian tribes), a council of elders, and a national assembly. In the VI century. BC e. formed, so-called. "Lykurgov system" (establishment of helotia, consolidation of the community of Sparta by equalizing them in economic terms and political rights and turning this community into a military camp). At the head of the state were two archagetes, who were chosen every eight years, by divination by the stars. The army was subordinate to them and they had the right to most of the military booty, they had the right to life and death in campaigns.

Positions and authorities

Kings of Sparta - Sparta has always been ruled by two kings from two dynasties: Agids and Eurypontides. Both dynasties descended from King Aristodem. In case of war, one of the kings went on a campaign, while the other remained in Sparta.

Ephors - elective positions in whose hands the judicial power was concentrated (there were 5 ephors in total, two of which accompanied the king on a campaign in case of war).

The Gerusia is the highest government body in Sparta. Gerousia consisted of 30 people (28 gerontes over the age of 60, elected for life, and 2 kings).

Navarch is one of the highest military positions in Sparta. The navarch commanded the Spartan fleet and had very wide powers, sometimes even going beyond the purely military (Aristotle called the power of the navarch "almost a second royal power"). Navarch was, for example, one of the most famous Spartan commanders - Lysander.

Chilo - legislator, one of the Seven Wise Men

11th century BC e. - the emergence of the city-state of Sparta.
10th century BC e. - the territory of Laconia was conquered by the Dorians, who turned part of the former Achaean inhabitants into perieks (politically disenfranchised, but civilly free), part into helots (state slaves); the Dorians themselves constituted the ruling class of the Spartans.
9th century BC e. - The legislation of Lycurgus makes Sparta a strong military state that acquired hegemony over the Peloponnese and even predominance in all of Ancient Greece, up to the period of the Greco-Persian wars.
743-724 BC e. - The First Messenian War. Sparta captures part of Messenia.
685-668 BC e. - The Second Messenian War. Sparta captures all of Messenia.
500-449 BC e. — Greco-Persian Wars.
480 BC e. - Battle of Thermopylae. The feat of three hundred Spartans.
479 BC e. — Battle of Plataea. The final victory of the Spartans and their allies.
479-464 BC e. - the war with Tegeatida, which ended with the victory of Sparta.
464-455 BC e. - Third Messenian War (uprising of the helots of Messenia).
460-445 BC e. - The Little Peloponnesian War. Division of spheres of influence between Athens and Sparta. Peace treaty for 30 years.
457 BC e. - Battle of Tanagra. The victory of the Spartans and their allies.
431-404 BC e. - The Peloponnesian War. In rivalry with the Athenians, the Spartans defeat them and become the dominant state in Greece.
427 BC e. - The capture of Plataea by the Spartans and the destruction of most of the population.
425 BC e. - Defeat of the Spartans at Pylos.
422 BC e. — Battle of Amphipolis. The victory of the Spartans and their allies.
418 BC e. — Battle of Mantinea. Spartan victory.
395-387 BC e. — Corinthian War. Victory of Sparta and Persia.
378-362 B.C. e. - The Boeotian War between the Boeotian League led by Thebes and the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta. No one won this war, but both sides were significantly weakened.
371 BC e. - Battle of Leuctra. Sparta loses its dominance in the war with Thebes.
362 BC e. — Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended in victory for the Spartans.
331 BC e. - War between Sparta and Macedonia.
331 BC e. — Battle of Megalopolis. Defeat of Sparta and her allies.
245-241 BC e. - Agis reform attempt, which ended in failure.
235-221 BC e. - an attempt to reform Cleomenes, which were very successful, but were canceled by the Macedonian king Antigonus III, after the military defeat of Sparta at the battle of Sellasia.
229-222 B.C. e. - Cleomenes' War. The war of Sparta against the Achaean League and Macedonia for hegemony in the Peloponnese.
222 BC e. Sparta suffers a heavy defeat at the battle of Sellasia. Sparta is forced into the Hellenic Union.
220-217 BC e. - An allied war in which Sparta acts as an ally of the Aetolian Union against the Hellenic Union.
215-205 BC e. - First Macedonian War.
207 BC e. — Battle of Mantinea. The battle ended with the defeat of the Spartans and the death of their king Mahanid.
204 BC e. - The Spartans unsuccessfully try to capture Megalopolis.
201 BC e. - The Spartans invade Messenia, but are defeated at Tegea.
195 BC e. - Laconian war, the defeat of Sparta and its accession to the Achaean Union.
147 BC e. - Sparta withdraws from the Achaean League and receives the support of Rome. The Achaean War begins.
146 BC e. - all Greece falls under the rule of Rome and becomes the Roman province of Achaia. Sparta and Athens at the same time received the rights of self-government, within their territory, in memory of their former glory.

Estates

Aristocracy

Gomei (literally "equal") are full citizens, they are most often referred to as Spartans and Spartans.
Parthenia (literally “virgin-born”) are the descendants of the children of unmarried Spartan women (the estate appeared during the 20-year First Messenian War, then was evicted to Tarentum).

Hypomeyons (literally "descended") - impoverished or physically handicapped citizens, deprived of their part for this civil rights.
Mofaki (literally "upstarts") are children of non-Homeans who have received a full Spartan upbringing and therefore have some chance of obtaining full citizenship.
Neodamons (literally “new citizens”) are former helots (from among the Laconians) who received incomplete citizenship (the estate appeared during the Peloponnesian War).
Perieki - free non-citizens (an approximate analogue of the Athenian meteks).

Laconian helots (who lived in Laconia) are state slaves, it was they who sometimes received freedom (and since the time of the Peloponnesian War, also incomplete citizenship).
Messenian helots (who lived in Messenia) are state slaves, unlike other slaves, who had their own community, which later after gaining independence of Messenia served as the basis for recognizing them as free Hellenes.

Training of young Spartans

The Agoge system is the system of military education in Sparta. Contrary to popular belief, not every boy born in Sparta had to go through this system. This system was obligatory only for male children of full-fledged citizens (with the exception of the royal ones). For other boys from other classes, passing through this system was a special privilege, giving a chance for full citizenship.

At the birth of a boy, they took it and carried it to the edge of the Apotheta abyss, where they examined it for a very long time and carefully. If the boy was sick or weak, then he was thrown into the abyss. And those who were left alive were subjected to various tests from infancy. The cradles in which the children slept were very rough and hard. At the age of seven, boys were sent to special military camps. There they learned how to survive. Those who failed, died. They slept on straw bedding, and they were allowed to wear clothes only from the age of 12. Some boys put nettles in their beddings to keep them warm by burning them. The boys were intensely engaged in physical exercises, practiced in possession of a sword, throwing a spear. They had to look for food for themselves - steal, rob, and if necessary, kill.

They were sometimes allowed to “have fun”, that is, arrange the so-called cryptia - the boys ran to neighboring villages (helots) and robbed them, and the strongest men were taken away with them and pulled out their intestines, watching how they die. At the age of 17, when the young Spartans were supposed to return home, the last test awaited them - they had to get to the temple of Artemis, which was very high in the mountains. Once there, the Spartan had to "sacrifice". The priests of the temple tied the young man over a large sacrificial bowl and began to whip him with wet rods until the first drops of blood. So it was, if the young man did not make a single sound, but as soon as he made at least a sound, he was beaten even harder, until he was silent. So they could beat them to the point of losing consciousness and even to death. So the weak were weeded out. Girls in Sparta did not go through this system, but they were forced to do a lot of sports, and sometimes they were taught to use weapons.

Gorgippia (Sind Harbor) Γοργιππία is an ancient city on the Black Sea coast that existed in the 4th century BC. e.-III century AD e. within the Bosporan kingdom. Founded on the spot ancient city, the center of the Sindh tribe. It got its name from the name of the royal governor Gorgipp. The area of ​​the city was more than 40 hectares, it was surrounded by fortress walls. At the end of the I-II centuries BC. e. The city minted its own coin. It flourished in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. e., becoming a major trade and craft center of the Bosporus kingdom. It was destroyed around 240 as a result of the invasion of barbarian tribes.

The settlement is located in the center of the modern city of Anapa. Partially excavated city blocks, rich burials. The museum-reserve "Gorgippia" was created under open sky, where stone-paved streets, foundations and walls of dwellings, the remains of workshops, wineries, fish salting baths, marble slabs with inscriptions, sarcophagi of local nobility extracted from the necropolis, etc. are presented.

In 1975, in the center of Anapa, while digging a foundation pit, a unique monument of ancient culture was discovered - a painted crypt of the Greek nobility. The crypt is called by archaeologists the "Crypt of Hercules" and belongs to the end of the 2nd-beginning of the 3rd century. Another crypt with two sarcophagi was discovered nearby. He was not robbed. In one sarcophagus were the remains of a noble Gorgippian with rich decorations. In another sarcophagus, two girls were buried - and also with rich decorations. The finds formed the basis of the "Golden Pantry" of the Krasnodar Regional Museum-Reserve.

Mariupol

Mariupol (Ukrainian Mariupol) is a city in the south-east of Ukraine on the coast Sea of ​​Azov at the mouth of the Kalmius and Kalchik rivers.
The area of ​​compact residence of the Greeks
Country Ukraine
Region: Donetsk region
Founded: 16th century
Former names
until 1778 - Domakha (Kalmius palanka)
before 1780 - Pavlovsk
before 1948 - Mariupol
until 1989 - Zhdanov
Population: 493,245 (2009)
Agglomeration: Mariupol City Council
Confessional composition: Orthodox, Protestants, Jews
Telephone code: +380 629

Mariupol has been known since the beginning of the 16th century as a Cossack fortress, but it became a real city only after the Crimean Greeks moved to the Sea of ​​Azov in 1778-1780. At the end of the 19th century, the city had Railway, a new large port and metallurgical plants - "Nikopol" and "Russian Providence", subsequently merged into the MMK. Ilyich. During the years of industrialization, the giant Azovstal plant and many other enterprises were built here. The city survived the fascist occupation (1941-1943) and economic recession (late 20th century).

The central district of Mariupol (from Metallurgov Avenue to Stroiteley Avenue) is almost a continuous administrative and commercial development: the building of the City Council, the post office, the Lukov Cinema, Mariupol University for the Humanities, the Priazovsky State Technical University - PSTU, the central city library named after Korolenko, large stores (supermarket "Moskva", "Thousand Little Things", etc.).

From Mariupol there is a direct railway connection with many cities of Ukraine, Russia, Belarus. From the Mariupol airport there are flights to the cities of Ukraine, Russia, Turkey, Greece and other countries. The city has an international bus station and suburban bus station AS-2. Mariupol Marine Trading port(the largest on the Sea of ​​Azov and one of the largest in Ukraine, cargo turnover is about 15 million tons per year) year-round carries out cargo transportation to dozens of countries around the world.

Chersonese

City-state, founded at the end of the 5th century BC. Greek colonists. The Herakleian peninsula, on which Chersonesus was located (near the modern city of Sevastopol), was protected from its Taurus neighbors by a whole system of fortifications, which were a kind of manor-fortresses. Powerful walls and towers around the city itself indicate that the danger often threatened him from the warlike Scythian tribes. steppe Crimea. In addition to the Herakleian Peninsula, Chersonesos also owned lands on the western coast of Crimea, where Kerkinitida and the so-called Beautiful Harbor were located under his control.

In my own way political structure V V-I centuries BC. Chersonese was a democratic slave-owning republic (ancient policy), from the 1st century BC. - an aristocratic republic dependent on Rome, from the 4th century - in vassal dependence on Byzantium.

In the Middle Ages (until the 15th century) it was called Kherson, Korsun. Ruins on the outskirts of the modern city of Sevastopol. The ruins of walls with towers, quarters, temples, a theater, workshops, etc. Since 1978 - the State Historical and Archaeological Reserve.

Adrianople - an ancient city in Thrace or Paphlagonia (here in 368 they rebelled against Rome locals Slavs, Antes and Goths), in modern Turkey - the city of Edirne on the Maritsa River.
Aquileia is a historical region on the Adriatic Sea. The local Slavs were among the first to adopt Christianity, because the department here was headed by the patriarch. After the destruction of Aquileia by Attila in 452, the bishop moved to Grado.
Andalusia (Andarusia, Vandalusia) - a historical region in Spain, was founded by the Goths in the 5th century; on it ready called vandals.
Arkona - a fortified city of the Baltic Slavs in Pomerania, on the island of Ruyan (modern - Rügen) with the temple of St. Destroyed by the Danish king Valdemar 1 in 1168.
Artaxata - an ancient city near modern Yerevan, founded by "blond beasts", the predecessors of the Armenians.

Asgard (Tana, Adzak, Cossack, Kazava, Asgard on Tanakvis) - the ancient names of the city of Azov on the Don.
Baghdad - (God-given, City of Peace, Irinopol) an ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Iraq. In 762 it became the capital of the Caliphate, since 1534 it belonged to the Turks.
Barcelona (Barcelagne) - a city in the northeast of Spain; founded in the 3rd c. BC.
White Mountain is a historical place near Prague, here the Czechs were defeated by the Germans and submitted to the power of the Catholics.
Belaya Krinitsa is a historical region in Bukovina, the center of the schismatic land of fugitives from Russia from the terror of Christians with the cities of Klimoutsy, Sokolniki, Mehidra.
Belgrade - 1) see Akkerman; 2) ancient Singidun or Singidon, the capital of Serbia on the Danube.
The White Sea is the former Slavic name for the Mediterranean Sea.
Beresty (Brest-Litovsk) - the former name of the ancient Russian city, now - Brest in Belarus.
Berles is the former Slavic name for Berlin.
Bern is the capital of Switzerland.
Bessarabia is a historical region (it got its name from the people of Bessy, Waxes, Satras, Thracians after the conquest by Rome in 168) between the Dniester and Prut rivers (now the main part of Moldova and Odessa region). In the 10-11 centuries. in Kievan Rus, then in the Galicia-Volyn principality, from the 14th century. in the Moldavian principality, from the beginning of the 16th century. as part of Turkey, since 1812 as part of Russia, in 1918-40 as part of Romania.
Befsan is one of the names of the ancient city of Scythopolis in Palestine.
The Blaten principality is a Slavic principality of the Ruthenians around Blaten Lake (Lake Balaton, Hungary).
Bologna - (Bologna,) the modern name of the former Etruscan capital city of Volsinia (Folsina), after the capture by the Roman Greeks in 189 BC. became known as Bononia.
Bornholm - (Berholm, Bear Hill), an island in the Baltic Sea, the territory of Denmark.
Bohuslan - (Boguslan - Divine Land - translated from the ancient local dialect) is an area in the south-west of Sweden, known for rock carvings of the Bronze and Iron Ages with solar signs.
Braga - the ancient capital of the people who lived on the territory of Portugal before the conquest by Rome; ruins of the Roman garrison settlement of Bracara Augusta.
Branibor - the former Slavic name of the city of Brandenburg before its capture by the Catholic Germans.
Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia; an ancient Celtic settlement captured by the Romans (Pison, Pizon, Pressburg).
Bremen is an ancient Slavic city on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, in 778 it was captured by the Germans and became the center of the Christian metropolis.
Bremen - the former name of the ancient Russian city on the territory of modern Germany.
Brittany - a historical region in the west of France, on the peninsula of the same name; was captured by the Normans and renamed after them.
Brunswick is the former name of the modern city of Braunschweig.
Brusa (Prusa) - an ancient city in Bithynia, at the foot of Mount Olympus, was the residence of the Ottoman Turks before they took Tsaregrad.
Budyshyn is the Slavic name of the city of Bautzen in Germany.
Boulogne (Boulagne) is a city and historical region in France.
Burgundy is a historical province of France, the center is the city of Dijon. The name was given by the fair-haired Huns or Burgundians, who came in the 5th century. to Gaul from the banks of the Vistula and Oder, after the adoption of Christianity, they submitted to the Franks.
Burdigala - the former name of the Galic (Celtic) city; now Bordeaux in France.
Var - the oldest name of the city in the Czech Republic, famous for the extraction of salt from natural thermal (up to 73 degrees) springs, the Germans changed it to Karlsbad, the Czechs to Karlovy Vary.
Varnow - the name of the city of Waren (Müritz).
Varangian Sea - Baltic Sea.
Vedegoshch (Vedegast) - the name of the city of Volgast (Wolgast Germany).
Velehrad - (Devin), capital of Moravia in antiquity.
Velegrad - the former name of the city of Didrichshagen.
Veligrad is the former name (Rerik, Rarog) of the city of Macklenburg. Rurik's father, Godoslav, the last ruler of the principality, was executed here.
Velikomir - the former name of the Russian city (modern Ukmerge, Lithuania).
Velichka - the later name of the ancient Tiberiopol (modern city of Strumnitsa) in Western Macedonia.
Vienna - the city of the Celts (Gauls) Vindobor before being captured by Rome and renamed Vindobona.
Hungary - (Ugria, ancient Pannonia, part of Dacia) - a historical region inhabited by the Goths from the 3rd century, then by the Huns and Avars; in the 8th c. Carl Vel. settled here many Slavs; in the 9th century occupied by the Mongols or Hungarians under the leadership of Arpad.
Wenden - official name residences of the sword-bearers from the moment of construction in 1203 until 1917 (modern - Cesis in Latvia).
The Vendian state is the state of the Polabian Slavs and the Pomeranians in the 40s of the 11th century. - the first third of the 12th century. led by vigilantes.
Vänern is a lake in southern Sweden; the Göta-Elv river flows out of the lake; main ports - Venersborg, Karlstad.
Venessin is a historical region in the southeast of France.
Hungary is the Russian (Slavic) name of the country Magyar Kostarsasag with the capital Budapest.
Venice is a republic on 12 islands of the Adriatic Sea, founded by fugitives from Aquileia and other cities, the Wends (or Venets), fleeing from the invasion of the Huns. had big influence on the fate of many countries and peoples, began to decline with the discovery of America and the shift of trade routes. After the death of the last orthodox ruler of Venice, Sophronius Kutovali, unrest began, which led to the unification with Lombardy into the Lombard-Venetian kingdom.
Vincennes - old City, a suburb of Paris, to the south of which the former the Royal Castle and park - Bois de Vincennes.
Vienna Woods - a spur of the Eastern Alps, near Vienna; oak and beech forests, replete with monuments of Slavic paganism; resting-place.
Venta - a river in Lithuania; flows into the Baltic Sea; at the mouth - Ventspils.
Verona - a city in northern Italy on the Ech River, the capital of Theodoric (Fedora-rex) of the Ostrogoths, since 1405 belonged to Venice, then to Austria
Weighs - the official name of the city of Viesite in Latvia until 1917.
Wessex (All Saxons, modern Wessex) - a historical region in England - the first kingdom in Britain.
Vilna (Vilnya) - the former name of the ancient Russian capital city, which in 1939 was transferred to Lithuania (modern Vilnius).
Wiltse - Slavic state of the 7th-9th centuries. in the Baltic Pomerania.
Vindava - the former name of the ancient city on the Baltic Sea at the confluence of the Venta River into the sea. In 1242 it was captured by the crusaders.
Vindobor - (Vienna Forest) the name of the Celtic (Gallic) city on the edge of the Vienna Woods before it was captured by the Romans in the 1st century. AD and renaming to Vindobona; modern - Vienna, the capital of Austria.
Vishemier is the former name of the city of Wismar in Pomerania, Germany.
Vaudemont is a county in Lorraine.
Vodina (Vodena) is the former name of the city of Moklena or Edessa (Edessa) in South Macedonia.
Wolin is an ancient Slavic city in Poland on the island of the same name at the mouth of the river. Audra.
Volyn - the former name of the city of Jomsburg in Germany.
Vyshgorod is generally an upper, fortified city, a Kremlin, a citadel. In particular, the city on the right bank of the Dnieper, built by Vladimir in 989 as his residence.
Vienne (Venn) - historical city in Dauphine (France).
Vyatka is the later name of the ancient Russian city of Khlynov.
Havel - the former name of the Slavic city (7-9 centuries) of the Polabian Rus on the territory of modern. Deutschland; modern - Havelberg.
Gadara is an ancient city east of the Tiberias (Genisaret) Lake in the Gerchesinian country. Here Jesus cast out a legion of demons.
Gaza is an ancient city in the Middle East, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as part of Palestine.
Gai - the city of the Canaanites (subjects of the khan) to the southeast from Bethel, which was conquered by I. Navin and given to the tribe of Benjamin.
Gilead mountains, Gilead - (hill of evidence) the modern name of Jil-ad, mountains in Palestine north of the Dead Sea.
Galata (milk market) - the historical part of Istanbul; capital place of Galatia - the main city of the Gauls (Celts).
Galatia is a historical region in Asia Minor, inhabited by the Gauls (Celts), who converted to Christianity in the 3rd-4th centuries.
Gallipoli is a city in Italy.
Gallipoli Peninsula - located in the European part of Turkey, between the strait. Dardanelles and the Saros Gulf of the Aegean Sea.
Galilee is a historical region in the north of Palestine near the Mediterranean Sea, inhabited by pagans. Hence - all the apostles, comrades of J. Christ. After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jews moved here and made the Tiberias Academy their center. Many residents then moved to the Balkans.
Galicia - ancient Chervonaya (Chervlenaya - Red) Rus or Chervlensky cities, in the upper reaches of the Dniester and Vistula, along the northern slope of the Carpathians.
Gall - the ancient name of the city of Hull in England, a port on the North Sea, in the estuary of the river. Humber.
Gaul (lat. Gallia from the Roman name of the Celts) - historical regions that were not part of the Roman Republic until the 2nd century BC. BC.; the territory of modern Spain, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland and parts of other territories.
Garama - the capital city of the mysterious white population of the Garamans who lived in Libya; in 21 BC they were conquered by Rome and dissolved in the local population, especially among the Tuareg. The lower ones were assimilated by the Arabs.
Gargan is a mountainous area in Italy overlooking the Adriatic Sea, famous for its monasteries.
Gardarika - (country of cities) the former European name of Northern Rus' with the capital Staraya Ladoga - the predecessor of Novgorod.
Garia (Garrien) is an ancient Estonian maakond (land) in the north of modern Estonia from the city of Varbola. In the 13th century captured by Denmark, including the land of Reval with the city of Revel (modern - Tallinn). In 1347 he was ceded to the Livonian Order, from 1561 - in Sweden. In Russia since 1710 - Revel district of the Estland province.
Heidelberg is an ancient city on the territory of Germany, known as the oldest (600,000 years) Eneolithic site of an ancient (Heidelberg) man. In the 5th century BC the Celts built a fortified settlement-shelter and places of worship on the Holy Mountain. OK. 80 AD captured by the Romans (held until 260), and then in the hands of the local population. In 1196 it was first mentioned under a modern name.
Gelonia (Geolan) is a historical region, a forest country located north of Scythia.
Helvetia - Celtic land between the Main and the Alps; later between Lake Constance and Lake Geneva; Helvetia is currently the Latinized name for Switzerland.
Genisaret land - the later name of Tiberias in Palestine.
Geon water - (muddy water), another name for the Nile.
Heraclea is an ancient city in Asia Minor on the Black Sea coast, modern city Ergeli in Turkey. According to legend, people from Heraclea founded Chersonesus in the Crimea.
Hesperia is one of the ancient names of the Apennine peninsula (Ausonia, Enotria, Italica).
Hyrcania (Iran. Varcana - country of wolves) - an area southeast of the Caspian (Hircan) Sea; from the rest of Iran is separated by mountains with the Caspian Gates pass.
The Hyrcanian Sea is the Iranian name for the Caspian (Khvalyn, Khvalis) Sea.
Gniezno - an ancient Slavic city in the west of Poland; in the 10th century it was the capital of Mazovia (an early Polish state).
Holland is the former name of the Netherlands or Northern Gaul; modern a province in the Netherlands.
Gotha is a historic city in Germany.
Gotland is an island and historical region in the Baltic Sea.
Gotthia is a historical region on the territory of modern Crimea (it got its name after the conquest by the Turks), formerly Tavria.
Grado is a historical Slavic town and island 15 km from Aquileia, in the Adriatic Sea. The chair of the metropolitan (or patriarch) was moved here after the attack of Attila's troops in 452.
Gran - the later name of the city of Ostrog in Hungary.
Greece - an ancient village in Attica (now Orop, Skala Orop). Mythical and mythological country, traces of which are found throughout the territory of human settlement
Grimbergen - ancient Zelenograd - a city in Belgium near Brussels.
Dacia is a historical region that included present-day Romania, Transylvania and Bessarabia. It was originally inhabited by Gauls, Dacians and Getae. After the conquest by the Romans in 107 AD. was inhabited by pagan Jews and Jatts (Gypsies), who received Roman citizenship (Roma). In the 3rd century it was occupied by the Goths, then by the Alans, Avars, Hungarians and Slavs.
Dalmatia - (Dalmatia - the country of sheep) a historical region in Yugoslavia, along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the western part of ancient Illyricum, inhabited by Serbs and Croats with a center in Delminium.
Denmark is a historical Slavic region, then a state that adopted Catholicism in 826.
Dvinsk - the former name of Borisoglebov (Daugavpils) until 1917.
Mesopotamia - the same as Mesopotamia (mixed offspring) or Mesopotamia.
Develt - the former name of the city of Zagora, located on Zagorje or Zagora (mountain slope).
Devin - (Velegrad), the capital of Rostislav, Prince. Moravsky.
Devon is a county in the south of Great Britain, on the English Channel.
Dedyakov - Alanian medieval town of 10-15 centuries. at the village Elkhotovo in North Ossetia. Christian temples, mosques, public and residential buildings, graves.
Deira (Dur) - a field near Babylon, a place of worship of the golden idol of the sun god (dei Ra).
The Dzhurdzhani Sea is one of the names of the Caspian Sea.
Dinaburg is the German name for Daugavpils (Dvinsk).
Diocletia - (Dioklia, Cetinje), the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian, at the confluence of the Zeta into the Morava. Later names - Dukla or Dukla, inhabited by Serbian tribes of Duklians (Dulebs, Slavs). At the beginning of the 11th c. conquered by Byzantium and renamed Zeta (named after a tributary of the river Moracha). After it became part of the Serbian state of Nemanich, then conquered by Venice, after falling under Turkish rule, the name Zeta was supplanted by Montenegro.
Dioscurias - (in Greek - Dioscuria and Sebastos), an ancient city on Black Sea coast(now at the bottom of the Sukhumi Bay); in the Roman period it was renamed Sebastopolis.
Dobresol - the former name of the city of Halle (Saxony, Germany).
Dodona - the sanctuary of Zeus (Dodona) in Ancient Greece, located in Epirus near Mount Tomar (that ma Ra), now Olichka.
Dorilea is an ancient city in Phrygia Healthy, with palaces and healing springs. In 10-8 centuries. - a state in the vast territories of Asia Minor with the capital Gordion.
Doros (Mangup, Doro, Theodoro) - main city Gotthia, in the Crimea, ruins 20 km from Sevastopol.
Dorosad - the name of an ancient city in the south of England-England (modern - Dorset).
Dorostol - (Durostorum, Dristr, Dorostol, Silistria), an ancient city, the Roman fortress of Durostorum in the NE. modern Bulgaria, which changed its name under Turkish rule to Silistria (Silistra), a port on the Danube.
Dregovichi is a historical area in Dalmatia.
Drepan - (Elenopol) in Bithynia - historical region. Asia Minor; It got its name from the Thracian tribes of the Bithynians.
Drogichin is an ancient Russian city in the Brest region, Belarus. He put up a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunval.
Drozdyany is the former Slavic name for Dresden.
Oak - a village near Chalcedon in Bithynia with a royal palace surrounded by groves. Here, at the Council of Chalcedon in 403, John Chrysostom was condemned.
Dublania - (Dublin - known since the 3rd century) Slavic fortress built on the territory of Ireland in 836; the modern city of Bale-Aha-Cliah, the capital of Ireland.
Dubovik - the former name of Dobin.
Dubossary - (Dubesari) an ancient city on the territory of Moldova.
Dubrovitsa is an old Russian city (before 1940 - Dombrovitsa) in the Rivne region. Ukraine on the Goryn River.
Dubrovnik - (Latin name - Ragusa), an ancient Slavic city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea; known since the 7th century; long time was the center of the aristocratic Republic of Dubrovnik.
Dover is an ancient city in England; shipbuilding center of pre-Roman Britannica.
Dullan (Dullan) is a city in Picardy (France).
Dura-Europos is a city on the Middle Euphrates, founded at the end of the 4th century. BC. Seleucus Nicator as a military colony. It became the center of caravan routes linking the Roman Empire. with the East. Repeatedly passed from hand to hand of the Parthians and the New Persian kingdom of the Sassanids. Destroyed in the 4th c.
Dymin - the former Slavic name of the city of Demmin.
Zagreb is the modern name of the city of Agram.
Zagros - (Zagorskaya Rus) a mountain system of parallel ranges in modern Iran, in the southwest of the Iranian Highlands. Length - 1600 km, width - 200-300 km. Mountain deserts, bushes, copses.
Zadar is the oldest city in Croatia, a port on the Adriatic Sea. Remains of the Roman Forum and triumphal arches; rotunda church of St. Donatus (beginning of the 9th century); Romanesque basilicas (St. Stoshi, 11th-12th centuries; St. Krevan, 12th century); fortress gate "Porta Terraferma" (16th century).
Zara - an ancient Slavic city on the Adriatic Sea, adopted Christianity in the 8th century.
Zverin - the former name of the Russian city; now Schwerin, the administrative center of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.
Zvyagel - the name of the ancient city on the Sluch River until 1793; modern Novograd-Volynsky in Ukraine.
Zeta (Cetinja, ancient Dioklea, then Dukla) is the main city of Montenegro on the Zeta River.
Golden Sands (Zlatni Pyasytsi) is a climatic resort in Bulgaria, known since the 3rd century.
Solothurn is a historical region and canton in Switzerland.
Jabbok is a river, a left tributary of the Jordan River. The modern name of Ez-Zarqa.
Iberia - ancient name Iberian Peninsula along the river Iber (Giber, Ber), now the Ebro. Spain became known after the conquest by Rome.
Ida is a mountain in Greece on the island of Crete.
Jebus - the area in which Jebus was located (Ie news, renamed Jerusalem - "the throne of the god of the Rus" by David) before his capture by David. It had its former name by the name of Jebus, the son of Canaan. Cunning invaders try not to call these lands by real names, so that it is not clear to the modern reader what kind of people lived here before.
Yemen - (happy or God's chosen people); the name of the state in Africa after the adoption of Judaism.
Hierakon (Ie Ra Kon-Hierakonpol, Jericho) is the name of the political center of Southern Egypt during the first dynasty.
Iliopolis (Heliopolis) - the city of the Sun, Beth-shemesh, He (the sun), Baal-bek (Bel God), the city of Baal; the most unique object ancient world with temple complexes of incredibly large parts, weighing over a thousand tons.
Ilmen - the old name of the tributary of the Laba (Elbe), the modern - Ilmenau.
Imereti is a historical region in Georgia once inhabited by pagan Jews from Samaria. Its last king Solomon went to Turkey in 1783 and Imereti became part of Russia.
Irinopol - the name of the city of Baghdad before the restoration of the old name in 762.
Ireland - (Iriy land, Hiberia, "Island of the Saints"), the Celtic population began to accept Christianity in the 5th century. through monasteries, submitted to Rome in the 12th century.
Istria is a peninsula in the north of the Adriatic Sea, inhabited by Slavs since ancient times. At first it was part of the Roman Empire, then it belonged to Venice, from the end of the 18th century it belonged to Austria.
Itil (Atel) - the ancient capital of Kozaria, was located near Astrakhan. According to it, it is customary to call the lower part of the Volga - Itil.
Iturea (Tiria, Turia) is a historical region in the north of Palestine.
Kolotida (Kallatida) - a Dorian colony on west bank Black Sea. According to legend, it was founded by Heraclea.
Camara is a city and fortress in Italy.
Campania is a historical region in southern Italy on Tyrrhenian coast, which for a long time preserved Slavic traditions.
Candia is one of the old names (after the capture by the Arabs) of the island of Crete (formerly the Hidden One).
Canossus - Tuscan (Etruscan) castle. Here, in 1077, Henry IV humbly asked for forgiveness from Pope Gregory VII with the participation of the Tuscan Margraves Matilda.
Canton is the former name of the city of Guangzhou in southern China.
Capernaum is an ancient city in Galilee, on the northwestern shore of Lake Tiberias. Glorified by the frequent visits of Christ.
Cappadocia is a historical region in Asia Minor, on the border of Armenia and Cilicia. Adopted Christianity in the 3-4 centuries.
Karaman is a historical region and state in Asia Minor.
Karanovo - the remains of a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement (6-3 thousand BC).
Carantania is a historical region, the state of Slovenes in the 7th-11th centuries in the Mura river basin and the upper reaches of the Drava river. Later names - Carinthia, Krayna, Carinthian brand (Styria).
Karasev - the old Russian name of the city of Belogorsk in the Crimea; under Turkish rule - Karasubazar, Karasuvbazar.
Karenica - the former name of the city of Harz.
Karin (Kari) - the ancient name of the city, which became Theodosipolis or Theodosipolis (Divine City) under the Byzantines, under the Arabs - Kalikala, the modern Turkish city of Erzurum.
Karin (Erzerum, Theodosipol) is a city in Armenia, near the Euphrates.
Kariya is a historical region in the southwestern part of Asia Minor.
Carmel (Carmel) is a mountain in Palestine (Israel) on the Mediterranean coast. Known for ancient pagan temples, from the 4th-5th centuries. became a place of seclusion for Jewish hermits. In the caves of Skhul and Tabun, along with the Mousterian kam. tools discovered the remains of fossil people of the Neanderthal European type, which had many similarities with modern man. Antiquity - 45-40 thousand years.
Catalonia (Catalan) is a historical region in Spain with the capital Barcelona.
Kafa (Kaffa) - the name of the city of Feodosia in the Crimea from the 13th century; renamed in 1783. Founded in the 6th century. BC. unknown people, sometimes they write that the Greeks.
Kakhetia is a historical region of Georgia, conquered by King Bagrat in the 11th century. On old maps it is simply Khetia, part of Kolokhetia, which became Colchidon and Colchis.
Kezlev (Kozlov) is the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria.
Cologne - the later name of the ancient Slavic city (Appian Colonia-Cologne-Cologne).
Celtiberia - historical area in the territory modern Spain; was inhabited by the Celtiberians (Celts and Iberians).
Kemeri - (before 1917 - Kemmern, earlier - Kem Meri) a balneo-mud resort in Latvia (the city of Jurmala).
Kemi is an ancient city in Finland at the confluence of the river. Kemi-Yoki to the Gulf of Bothnia; founding time is unknown.
Kem - (Ta Kemi, Kemi) the ancient name of the state in northern Africa; in the 7th century renamed Misr; the modern name of Gumhurdia Misr al-Arabi; the Hebrew name - Egypt - has taken root in our country.
Kem - an ancient city of Northern Pomerania on the river. Kem at its confluence with the White Sea; founding time unknown; It has been known in Novgorod since the 12th century, and in Moscow since the 15th century.
Kerkinitida is one of the ancient ports of the western Crimea, on the site of modern Evpatoria.
Kimmerik - an ancient city of the 5th century. BC - 3rd c. AD on the south coast Kerch Peninsula in the Crimea, who gave the name of the people - the Cimmerians.
Cyrenaica (Kyrenia) is a historical region in the west of Egypt, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Clusium - an ancient Etruscan city on the territory modern Italy(now - Chiusi).
Kobrin is a city in the Brest region. Belarus; founded by Russian princes in the 11th century; known from chronicles since the 13th century.
Kovno - the former name of the ancient Russian city (since 1917 - Kaunas); founded at the beginning of the 11th century.
Kozlov - the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria in the Crimea before Turkish rule.
Kola (Kolo) is a medieval city on the shores of the Kola Bay, at the confluence of the Kolo and Tuloma rivers. Known since the 13th century; Who founded and when is unknown.
Kolgon - modern Golgong, a city in India on the Ganges River.
Kolobreg - the former name of Kolberg.
Colony - (Kolo), the ancient name of the city of Cologne.
Colossi (Khona, Gona) - an ancient city in Phrygia on the river Lykos.
Kolochetia (Kolkhida - in Greek) is a historical region in Western Georgia. In the 13th-7th centuries. BC. the union of tribes of “blond beasts”, defined by archaeologists as the Colchis culture of agricultural tribes, accompanied by the image of animals and swastika ornaments, analogues of the Northern Black Sea region. Mingrelians, Georgian Jews, currently live here.
Kolyvan - the former name of the ancient Slavic city (in Lithuanian - Lindanis). In 1219-1917 the official name was Revel, then from 1917 - Tallinn.
Constantinople - the name in the Middle Ages of Perun-grad, Tsar-grad, Byzant, modern Istanbul (Turkey).
Konstanz is a city at the outlet of the Rhine from Lake Constance.
Horse-Stone (Kony Island) - an ancient sanctuary of the Korels on Konevsky (Konevsky) Island.
Kopaysky basin - Kopayskaya hollow, intermountain depression in Central Greece, along the Kefis River. In the past, it was filled with Kopaysky Lake, now drained.
Koporye - an ancient Russian city and fortress that defended the Novgorod land from the Swedes; now a village in the Leningrad region. with the remains of the fortress walls.
Corbeil is a city in Ile-de-France.
Korela - the name of the city Priozersk, Leningrad region until 1611. Under Peter 1 - Kekzholmts.
Corinth is an ancient city in Greece at the Isthmus of Corinth, connecting Central Greece and the Peloponnese peninsula. Founded by the Dorians (Darians) in the 10th century. BC. as the main city of Achaia; ruins near modern Corinth (Greece).
Korsun is the ancient Russian name for Chersonese, an ancient polis founded in the 5th century. BC. Ruins near Sevastopol.
Kortsira - the ancient Slavic name of the modern Greek island of Kerkyra (Corfu - in Italian).
Korchev - a Slavic city in the Crimea in the Middle Ages; now - Kerch.
Kossovo field - (Kosovo field), an area in Dalmatia (Serbia), where in 1389 the Turks defeated the Serbs and Bulgarians (according to the modern version, the Serbian-Bosnian troops under the command of Prince Lazar).
Red - the name of the former Slavic city in the territory of Germany; modern - Rothenburg.
Krevo - an ancient city with a fortress and a castle on the territory of Belarus; known for the Union of Krevo - an agreement on a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Russia and Litvinsky and Poland.
Kremenets is an ancient city on the territory of modern. Ukraine; known from chronicles since 1226.
Khreshchatyk - the main street Kyiv, is located on the site of the stream, in which the sons of Vladimir and noble people of Kiev were baptized.
Crete - the modern name of the Slavic island of Skryten (Kryt), under the Muslims - Candia from the capital city of Kandax.
Krichev is an ancient Russian city on the Sozh River, the territory of Belarus, known from chronicles since the 12th century.
Croatia is the old name for Croatia.
Croachan is a county in Scotland.
Kruszewice is an ancient Polish capital (8th-9th centuries).
Crimea - the modern name of the island and the state with the former name of Taurida, Tauric Chersonese, Greater Chersonesus, Gotthia, Ostrogothia.
Kurland - the historical region of Kurzeme in the western part of Latvia (Latgale; gall in Roman - rooster, chicken. Türkic-Slavic kuren and vezha - house, dwelling.). In the 13th century it was captured by the crusaders; since 1561 - the Duchy of Courland and the Pilten region, in 1695-1917 - the Courland province as part of Russia.
Laba is the old Slavic name for the Elbe River; used in Czechoslovakia; Laba is a river in Russia in the North Caucasus, the left tributary of the Kuban.
Ladoga - an ancient Russian city in the Slovenian land (Novgorod); mentioned in chronicles since the 8th century; now with. Staraya Ladoga in the Leningrad region.
Ladon is a river in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula.
Laconia is a historical region in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula.
Lan (Lan) is a land and a city in France.
Languedoc is a province in France.
Langton is a bay of the Arctic Ocean in northern Canada.
Landes is a region in southwestern France.
Lagny is a land and a city in the Île-de-France.
Lapland - a historical region, the territory of Finland, Sweden, Norway; the population is Lapps.
Latgale is a historical region in the Baltic states on the territory of modern Latvia.
Lebediya - a historical region on the territory of modern Ukraine, was occupied or defeated by the Magyars (Huns) when they moved to the west. The location was determined by historians - the area of ​​​​the city of Lebedyan (Lipetsk region) or Lebedin (Sumy region).
Swan - a river in Altai, a tributary of the Biya, the Ob basin.
Lenchin is the modern name of Lenzen.
Livonia - the Baltic lands captured by the German Livonian Order.
Lipsk - the old name of the Slavic city on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany; now Leipzig in Saxony.
Litvinia - White Rus', population - lithuania, litvins; in later documents - the state (principality) - Lithuania.
Lausanne - a city in Savoy, from the 16th century. - in Switzerland, on the shores of Lake Geneva.
Longobardia is a historical region in northern Italy, founded in the 3rd century BC. from R.H. longobards (long-bearded), immigrants from the territory of modern Germany; the capital of Mediolan (middle land, now Milan). Modern Lombardy in Italy.
Ltava - (Litava) the name of the city of Poltava until 1430.
Lugdun - (Lugdon) the ancient name of the Gallic city at the confluence of the rivers Rhone and Saone; modern Lyon in France.
Lusatia is a historical region on the territory of modern Germany (named after the modern region of Lusatia), known since the 13th century. BC. The main population: Lusatians, Lusatian Sorbs (Serbs), Wends (Wends). They were subjugated by the Arabian Germans under Otto 1, but retained their own language, which belongs to the West Slavic languages.
Lusitania (Lusitania, Rusitania) - the name of the Iberian Peninsula before the conquest by Rome and renaming to Spain.
Lübeck is a city in the north of Germany, a port on the Baltic Sea.
Lyubech is an ancient Russian city on the left bank of the Dnieper. It was first mentioned in chronicles under 882. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes took place in Lyubech.
Lubich - the former name of the Slavic city (modern Lubeck in Germany).
Lublin is a city in the east of Poland, known since the 10th century; The Union of Lublin between Litvinia and Poland was concluded here.
Lutetia - the ancient city of Parisians and Luticians on the island of Sich (Sita) at the confluence of the rivers; in 3 c. after the capture by the Romans, it was renamed Parisii; modern name is Paris.
Lucerne is a city in Switzerland, on the Firwaldstet lake.
Lucin - the official name of the city of Ludza in Latvia until 1917.
Magdeburg - the ancient Slavic city of Velegrad in Prussian Saxony; the center of the state of Saxony-Anhalt in modern. Deutschland. Known since 805, since 968 - the center of the archbishopric.
Mazovia - a historical region of Poland, in the middle reaches of the Vistula and the lower reaches of the Narew and Bug; from the 9th c. - principality; from the 13th century it was divided into specific principalities and gradually began to fall under the rule of the Polish kings; finally in Poland from 1526.
Macedonia is a historical region on the Balkan Peninsula in the adjacent regions of Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria.
Malin - 1. The ancient name of the Slavic city in Belgium (modern - Mechelen), known for its bell ("crimson") ringing. 2. City in Ukraine.
Marakanda - the ancient capital of Sogdiana; modern - Samarkand.
Mariupol is a city on the Sea of ​​Azov, in 1778 the tsarist government settled here brought Greeks, whom the Tatars did not want to let into the Crimea.
Marcomanni are border residents, the same as Ukrainians.
Mglin - (Meglin, Moglena), a mountain fortress and a city in Western Macedonia, northwest of Vodena (Edessa. Edessa).
Megara is the center of the Megarida region in ancient Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth.
Medina is the modern name for the ancient city of Yathrib in the Arabian Peninsula.
Bear Lake - (Great Bear Lake), in northwestern Canada, in the Mackenzie River basin.
Mediolan - (middle land), the former Slavic name of Milan and the surrounding lands.
Medniki - the former name of the Russian city, modern. Medininkai, Lithuania.
Melit is the ancient name of Malta.
Memel (Memelburg) - the official name of the city of Klaipeda (Lithuania) until 1923.
Menesk - the old name of the Belarusian city of Minsk; known from chronicles since 1067.
Meotida - (Meot ida - the land of the Meotians) the Roman name of the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov (Meotian Lake or Meotian swamp); they also called the inhabitants of the coast Meots, so a new nationality appeared.
Merv is an ancient city, the center of the Merv oasis (modern Mary in Turkmenistan).
Merv oasis - a historical region in the south of modern. Turkmenistan; from the 3rd century it was part of Khorasan.
Lake Merida - dug it in the 15th century. BC King Merid to collect water supplies from the Nile.
Meroe - ancient country west of the Arabian Gulf. According to legend, it was ruled by queens (of Sheba, Kandakia).
Dead Sea - (Salty, Asphalt, Lotovo) drainless salt Lake in the Middle East. It is located 395 m below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. The most low point peace.
MESOPOTAMIA - (correctly - Senaar, Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, mixed offspring) - a historical region in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, one of the centers of ancient civilization, now in Iraq.
Messenia - the historical region of Ancient Greece, in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula, inhabited in ancient times by the Leleg tribe, which had Pylos as its capital; later it was settled by immigrants from the Palestinian Messenia; considered the first Jewish (Greek) colony in the Balkans.
Messina - the ancient city of Zankl (until the 3rd-4th centuries) in Sicily, the first Greek colonists came here after the defeat of the state of Northern Israel (Samaria) by Assyria or the Scythians around 730 BC.
Mechelen (Mehelan, Malin) - the ancient city of Malin in Belgium on the Dil River, famous for its bell ringing (crimson ringing).
Mechlin is the former name of the city of Mecklenburg.
Midia is a historical region in the northwestern part of the Iranian Highlands. 13th-7th centuries BC. - union of tribes; in the 7th-6th centuries. - a kingdom that flourished under Cyaxares (King Kiak) on the territory of Iran and South Azerbaijan.
Mysia is a historical region in the northwest of Asia Minor, on the site of Troy. Another area occupied by Serbs and Croats in the 19th century.
Mikilin is the former name of Mecklenburg.
Mytilene - (Mytilan) an ancient city on about. Lesvos.
Mishnah - the former name of the city of Meissen.
Morava - (blue) right tributary of the Danube, consisting of the Serbian and Bulgarian Morava.
Moravia is a historical region along the Oder and Morava.
Morea - a historical area in the territory modern Greece.
Mosul is a historical region founded by the Guzes (torks - worshipers of Thor) of Central Asia, who converted to Islam in the interpretation of the commander and emir of Mosul - Islam in the territory of modern Iraq. After that, the Guzes began to be called Mosulmans (modern Muslims) or Torkmen (due to the fact that part of the people continued to worship the Torah).
Mstislavl - an ancient city in Belarus on the river Vihra; known from chronicles since 1156.
Murmansk - the same as the Norman coast, that is, the northern coast of Russia, adjacent to Norway.
Murom - an ancient Russian city, the capital of Muroma - the Finno-Ugric tribes who lived in the upper reaches of the Oka from 1 thousand BC; known from Christian chronicles since 862; since 1097 the center of the Muromo-Ryazan principality; from the middle of the 12th century up to 15 - the center of the Murom principality.
Mutyanskaya land - the old name of Moldova.
Nazareth is a mythological city in the lower Galilee (there was no such city, but there was the Nazarene land), here Jesus lived up to 30 years; the city is known as the center of the Nazarene heresy, which was preached by Jesus.
Narva - a city and fortress in Estonia on the Narva River; known in Russian chronicles since 1171 under the name Rugodiv (Rusodiv).
Naples - Palestine Naples, the same as Nabluz (Nablus) near ancient Shechem; Naples Italica - the ancient Parthenon; Naples in Macedonia became part of Philippa founded by Philip 11; Scythian Naples (Simferopol) 3rd c. BC - 3rd c. from R.H. - the capital of the Scythian state in the Crimea.
The German Sea is the name of the Baltic Sea found in foreign literature at the time of the seizure of land by Catholic orders.
Nesvizh is an ancient city on the territory of Belarus; known from chronicles from the 13th century and the castle of the Radziwills.
Nicaea is a city in Bithynia, on the shores of Lake Askan, the capital of the Nicaean Empire and the first capital of the Ottomans before they took Constantinople.
Nicomedia - a city in Bithynia, by the Sea of ​​Marmara, the capital of the Eastern Empire to Constantinople.
Nikopol - (Nikup), Roman city 2-7 centuries AD. in the province of Moesia Inferior, east of the modern city of Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria).
Nile is the most long river Africa, formed by the confluence of the White and Blue Nile rivers. Actually, the Nile is Blue; this name has been from time immemorial, got its name from an unknown fair-haired and white-skinned people who lived here several millennia ago.
Nilgiri - mountain range Blue Mountains in southern India; got its name from an unknown tall, fair-haired people who lived here several thousand years ago.
Nineveh is an ancient city in the Middle East, the capital of Assyria (on the territory of modern Iraq, near Mosul).
Novgorod is an ancient Russian city on the Volkhov River, 6 km from Lake Ilmen. According to church annals, it has been known since 859; from the Vlesova book: “In the summer of 3113 (2395 BC), the Grand Duke Sloven built a city and named it after his name Slovensk, which is now called Veliky Novgorod, from the mouth of the great lake Ilmer along the Volkhov River, half a third field.”
Novgorodok is the name of a Russian fortress on the territory of modern Estonia before it was renamed Vastselina.
Novgorod-Seversky is an ancient Russian city on the Desna River, in the Chernihiv region. Ukraine, known since the 10th century.
Novgorod land - a historical region in the northwest and north of Rus' in the 9th-15th centuries; included, in addition to the Novgorod Republic and its possessions up to White Sea and Sev. Trans-Urals (Karelia, Tersky coast, Zavolochye, Pechora, Yugra), from the end of the 15th century - only the lands adjacent to Novgorod.
The Novgorod Republic is a rooted name in the domestic literature of the state in NW and S. Rus in 1136-1478. with the capital - Novgorod. Attached to Muscovy as a result of the campaigns of Ivan 111.
Novogrudok is an ancient city in Belarus, known since 1116.
Novosil is an ancient city in the Oryol region. on the river Zusha; known since 1155; at the beginning of the 14th century. - the center of the Novosilsky principality.
Novotroitsk settlement - the remains of a fortified Slavic city of the 8th-9th centuries. at the village Novotroitskoye, Sumy region Ukraine.
Novocherkassk is a city in Rostov region; former capital(since 1805) Lands of the Don Cossacks; the capital of the world Cossacks.
Norik - a historical region, a mountainous country bordering Italy and Pannonia; the main population was the Celts. At the age of 16-13 BC. was conquered by Rome and became an imperial province.
Normandy is a historical region and duchy in northwestern France.
Oks is the ancient name of the Amudarya River; before the Arab conquest.
Oldenburg is the modern name of the Slavic city of Stargrad before the capture by the Germans.
Olbia - economic capital Scythians, located on the right bank of the Dnieper-Bug estuary.
Orany - the former name (until 1917) of Varena in Lithuania.
Oreshek - the name of the Russian fortress and city in 1323-1611; in 1611-1702 after the capture by the Swedes - Noteburg; since 1702 as part of Russia - Shlisselburg.
Or-Kapu (Perekop) is a Turkish fortress on the Perekop isthmus.
Ostia (Mouth) - (in Latin - the mouth of the river) an ancient city in Italy at the mouth of the Tiber, not far from Rome.
Ostrogom - the former name of the city of Gran in Hungary.
Pavia is a city in Lombardy (Italy) on the river. Ticino; since 568 - the capital of Longobardia.
Palestine is a historical region in the Middle East, east of the Mediterranean Sea, one of the oldest centers of Russian civilization. Before colonization by the Jews under the leadership of Solomon, it had one of the names of Palena Stan (hot place).
Palmyra - (Fadmor, City of Palms), an ancient city in Syria, the greatest flourishing in the 1-3 centuries. AD; the temples of Baal, the sanctuaries of Bel, the so-called. camp of Diocletian.
Pamphylia - a historical region in the south of Asia Minor; first - the union of tribes, from the 6th century. BC. in the kingdom of the Achaemenids, Alexander the Great, Ptolemies, Seleucids, Pergamon, together with whom, after 133 BC. became a possession of Rome; in 43 AD Lycia and Pamphylia made up Rome. province.
Pannonia - historical region (ancient Paeonia), Roman province; occupied part of the territory of modern Hungary, Yugoslavia, Austria.
Roman Pantheon - a pagan temple depicting all the gods of the Roman Empire; in 607 Pope Boniface IV converted to the Church of All Saints.
Panticapaeum (Panticapeum) - an ancient city in the Crimea (modern Kerch) in the 6th century BC-4th century. AD; then the Slavic city of Korchev.
The Papal States is a theocratic state that existed in 756-1870. on the Apennine Peninsula with its capital in Rome. Led by the Pope.
Parthia is a historical region southeast of the Caspian Sea. Known from 1,000 BC; in 250 BC-224 AD - Parthian kingdom (from Mesopotamia to the Indus). Since 224, it became part of the Sassanid state.
Passau is a city in Bavaria, the center of Catholic expansion into the Slavic lands.
Patus is an ancient city on the site of modern Gelendzhik.
Paphlagonia is a historical region in the center of Asia Minor.
Pella - an ancient city in Perea (Palestine), opposite Scythopolis; the Jews left here in 66 AD. who did not want to participate in the war with Rome.
The first Bulgarian kingdom is a Slavic-Bulgarian state in 681-1018. in the north of the Balkan Peninsula.
Mother See - an honorary title of Moscow after the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg.
Pergamum is a city and a state in Asia Minor, in Mysia. Founded in the 12th century. BC. He lost his independence in connection with his will in 133 BC. King Attalus III. In its place, the Romans established the province of Asia. The city gave its name to parchment where it was first invented; famous for the library, honey. school, the Pergamon altar of Zeus.
Crossed - the ancient capital of the streets (uglichs, budzhaks) on the Dniester (modern village of Peresecina in Moldova). The city was taken and destroyed by the Kyiv governor Sveneld in 939-940. Then, after the expulsion of the Uglichs and Tivertsy, the Pechenegs, who converted to Christianity, were invited here.
Perea - Greek name parts of Palestine, east of Irdan.
Pereyaslavl the Great (Preslav, Markianopol, Megalopolis) - an ancient Slavic city, located in the Balkan Mountains near Shumla.
Pereyaslavl small - (Preslav) an ancient Slavic city, the former capital (893-971) of the First Bulgarian and Western. Bulgarian kingdom; for some time it was owned by the Kiev prince Svyatoslav. Ruins near the modern city of Preslav.
Pereyaslavl Russian (Pereslav) - an ancient Russian city, known since 906; the capital of the Pereyaslav principality in the 11th-13th centuries; the modern city of Pereyaslavl-Khmelnitsky.
Pereyaslavl Ryazansky - an ancient Russian city, founded in 1095 by Prince. Yaroslav Svyatoslavich. From the middle of the 13th century - the capital of the Ryazan principality; in 1778 it was renamed Ryazan.
Pereyaslavl - before the 15th century. Pereslavl, then - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky; in 1175-1302 - the center of the specific Pereyaslav principality of the great Vladimir-Suzdal principality; from the 14th century within the Moscow principality.
Perm - (ancient Biarmia), the old Russian name for the historical region from the Ural Mountains to the river. Pechora, Kama and Volga; inhabited by the Komi people (Kama). This territory was annexed to the Muscovite state in 1478. Great Perm - the territory of modern. Komi-Permyak region; Perm Malaya (Old, Vychegodskaya) - ter. modern rep. Komi.
Persis - (Pars, Parsia, Barsia), - a historical region on the territory of modern Iran; modern - Farce.
Persia is a state in Asia (the modern name is Iran).
Perusia (Perusia) - an ancient Etruscan city on the territory of modern Italy (now Perugia - former city rugs; Perugia sounds in Russia).
Petra is an ancient city in Jordan.
Petrian Arabia - the territory adjacent to the city of Petra.
Pitiunt is an ancient city; modern Pitsunda in Abkhazia.
Pleskov is the old name of the city of Pskov.
Pleskov (Pliskov) - the old name of the Bulgarian capital since 640 - Pliski.
Polabskaya Rus is a state that existed on the territory of modern Germany and western Poland until the end of the 11th century.
Polotsk - (Polota) the oldest Russian city on the Polota River, known from chronicles since 864 (currently in Vitebsk region White Rus').
Pomerania - the modern name of the historical Slavic region of Pomerania on the Baltic Sea coast with the center of Szczecin.
Pomerania is a historical region on the northern Baltic coast of Poland. It consists of two parts: Western and Eastern (Gdansk). West Side, captured by the Mediterranean Germans, became a duchy and became part of the German Union in 1170.
Northern Pomorie - received its historical name in the 15-17 centuries. (the coast of the White Sea from the city of Kem to the city of Onega - the Pomor Coast) or a wider area from Obonezhye to the North. Urals, including Korelia, Dvina, Vazhskaya, Sysolskaya, Vyatka, Perm lands, Posukhonye, ​​Belozersky and Pechersky territories (Pomor cities). Until the 12th century - the possessions of the Novgorod Republic; by the beginning of the 16th century. - in the Moscow state.
The Kingdom of Pontus is a state on the southeastern shore (Ponte) of the Black Sea. Existed from 301 to 64 years. BC.
Pont Euxinus - ancient Greek name south coast Black Sea in Asia Minor, on the territory of which the Pontic kingdom was created in 301 BC.
The Ponto-Aral Sea is a hypothetical water basin that united the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas in the past.
Portugal is an ancient historical region (Coast Gaul).
Portusallia is the old name for Portugal.
Beautiful port - the former Slavic name of the Chersonesos port on the western coast of Crimea, on the site of the modern city of Chernomorsk (under the Turks, Ak-Mechet).
Pressburg is the German name for Bratislava (Pizon, Pizhon).
Prilwiec is the former name of the city of Prilwitz in Germany.
Propontis - the ancient Greek name of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara (lying between the ponts-shores - Pontus Euxinus and Helios Pontus).
Ra - the ancient name of the river, which eventually began to be called Big Road(Bol Ga), and then turned into the Volga.
Ravenna (Plain) - Gallic city in Northern Italy in a low, swampy plain. From the 5th century - the residence of the Western Roman emperors, then the Ostrogothic kings.
Ragusa is the former name of the current Dubrovnik on the Adriatic Sea.
Ragi is the capital of the Great Media, south of the Caspian Sea.
Razgrad - an ancient and modern city in Bulgaria; formerly the Roman city of Abritus.
Hrazdan is the modern name of the river in Armenia; former - Zanga.
Raipur is a city in India, in the north of the Deccan highlands.
Rakobor - (Rakovor) the former name of a Russian city from the 13th century. (modern Rakvere in Estonia, until 1917 - Wesenberg).
Ras (Ras) is an ancient city in Serbia on the banks of the Raska (Raska) River, a tributary of the Ibra. Stefan Nemanja was baptized here in 1143.
Ratibor - the former Slavic name of the city of Ratzenburg.
Reval - the former name of the capital of the land Rävala in Northern Estonia. In the 13th century it was captured by the Danish crusaders.
Riphean mountains - presumably the Urals.
Rod as - (Rod of Ases) the old name of the island of Rhodes; in the Aegean Sea off the coast of Asia Minor.
Roden is an ancient Russian city of blacksmiths, located at the confluence of the river. Ros in the Dnieper-Slavutich.
Rhombits - Big and Small - now the Beisug and Yeysk estuaries of the Sea of ​​Azov.
Rossiena - the official name from 1253 to 1917 of the modern Lithuanian city of Raseiniai.
Rossano is the main city of Calabria, in the south of Italy.
Rostock is a former Slavic city in Germany.
Rotenburg is a city in the south of Germany, the former Slavic city of Krasny.
Rugodiv - an old Russian city, captured by the crusaders and renamed Narva.
Rusafa is the residence of the Baghdad caliphs.
Ruse is a city in Bulgaria, near which there are the remains of the city of Cherven with rock churches.
Rusne is a city in Lithuania on the river. Nemunas.
Ruspe is an ancient city founded by the Vandals (Goths) in NW Africa.
Russik is a monastery founded by Russians on Mount Athos.
Roussillon - 1. Historical region in the south of France. 2. Historical region in the Pyrenees.
Rävala is a historical region in the north of modern Estonia with the capital Revel.
Sals (Salsk) is a city in Roussillon.
Samaria - (Sevastia - after the restoration by Herod) an ancient city in Palestine, for many years the former capital of the pagan Jewish state. The modern name is Sebastia.
Samarra - the capital of the Caliphate after the transfer of the capital from Baghdad in 836, is located 110 km from Baghdad up the Tigris.
Samkerts - the name of Taman during the period of the Khazar Khaganate.
Samothrace - on modern maps of Samothrace, an island in the north of the Aegean Sea as part of Greece.
Sarai - (royal palace), the capital of the Mongol khans on the banks of the Akhtuba River; founded by Batu in the 13th century.
Sardika - (Sredets, Sofia, Ulpiya, Triaditsa) former names of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Sardinia - big Island Mediterranean Sea. The first cities were built here by the Phoenicians (presumably).
Sardis - (Sardim) - the ancient capital of Lydia under Croesus.
Sarkel - (Royal Shield), - the second name of the border town of the Don Russ Belaya Vezha.
Sevastia (Sebastia) - the name of the restored capital of the Gentile Jews of Samaria under Herod the Great. Hence - Sevastipol (Sevastopol).
Sevastia in Armenia is a city built by settlers from Samaria-Sevastia, in which 40 Christians were executed in 320 AD.
Sevastopol is the modern name of the Turkish city of Akhtiar, renamed in honor of the Jewish city of Sevastia by "Greek" settlers.
Semigallia is a historical region between Poland and Courland, which was captured and converted to Christianity in 1218 by the Sword-bearers.
Semikarakora - a city in the Rostov region, the ancient Karakorum (founded by Khan Karakorum in 808) in the European part of the Golden Horde.
Serbia New - the territory inhabited by Serbs along the river. Bugu, immigrants from Austria in 1749.
Cerdan (Cerdan) is a historical region in the Eastern Pyrenees.
Sephoris - (Diocesarea, Kitron) - the main city of Galilee at the time of I. Christ.
Sekheriy - the Black Sea channel of the Kuban.
Silesia is a historical region in Europe, in the upper part of the Odra river basin ( modern territory Poland and the Czech Republic).
Silistra - (Dorostol, Derstr) an ancient Bulgarian fortress on the Danube.
Singidon - (Upper Misia), the ancient name of the capital of Serbia, Belgrade.
Sindskaya harbor is one of the former names of Anapa.
Syracuse is an ancient city and capital founded in 734 BC. in Sicily.
Seachem (Sichem, Sikar, Flavius-Naples) - the former capital of the bulk of the Jews who broke away from Judea before being transferred to Samaria; now - the city of Nabluz (Navluz).
Scythopolis (Befsan) is an ancient city in Palestine.
Sclavnia - one of the Slavic states of the Baltic coast of the 8th century. on the territory of modern Deutschland; neighboring - Wiltse.
Scrivia is a meandering river in Italy.
Slavonia is a historical region in the north of Yugoslavia, between the rivers Sava and Drava, part of ancient Pannonia.
Slavutych is the Slavic name for the Dnieper.
Smyrna - the ancient city of Lydia in Asia Minor; founded in the 2nd millennium BC
Sogdiana - the historical region of Asia in the north. from the Persian Gulf, in the basin of the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya rivers, one of the most ancient centers of civilization. Chief city from 329 BC - Marakanda (now Samarkand).
Solun - (Thessalonica), the ancient city and capital of Thessaly; now Thessaloniki.
Sparta is an ancient Greek state with the center of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula.
La Spezia is an ancient and modern city and port in Italy, famous for its spice trade.
Splet (Spalatro) - The ancient city of Dalmatia; modern - Split.
Sredets - (Sardika, Ulpiya, Triaditsa) is the ancient Slavic name of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Srem - (Sirmium), a city in Pannonia on the Sava River, the capital of the Gepids; in 3-5 centuries. - the capital of the Roman Caesar.
Stargrad - the former name of the Slavic city; now - Oldenburg in Germany.
Stargrad - the former name of the city of Altenburg (modern Stralsund).
Starodub - a city from the 11th century on the territory of the Bryansk region, on the Babinets river; the center of a specific principality, put up a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunval.
Starodubye is a settlement founded in 1690 in the Chernihiv region. fugitive Old Believers from Moscow, fleeing executions.
Walls - a port on the west coast ancient Crimea. The exact location has not been established.
The Stodar state is the name of the principality of the Lyutichs in the 8th century. in the Great Chronicle.
Stradonitsa is an ancient Celtic settlement dating back to the 1st millennium BC. near the village of the same name in the Czech Republic.
Strasbourg is a city in eastern France on the Ile River at its confluence with the Rhine (the German name is Strasbourg). The name comes from "guard" and "city" - a border town.
Stridon is an ancient city in Dalmatia at the confluence of three rivers.
Strymon is the Greek name for the Struma River, which flows mainly in Bulgaria and flows into the Aegean Sea.
Suva - (Owl, Soval Syria, Kelesiriya), the area between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.
Sugdey (Sugdeya, Surozh) - an ancient Slavic city in the Crimea, the center of Surozh Rus; modern Sudak.
Sudzhuk-Kale is the former name of Novorossiysk.
The Surozh Sea is the name of the Sea of ​​Azov from Surozh Rus and the city of Surozh (Sudak).
Taurus (Toros) - mountains in southern Turkey.
Taurida - (Gottia) Crimea.
Taurica - in ancient times (9th century BC - 4th century AD) was the name of the southern part of the Crimea, inhabited by Taurians, Tauro-Scythians.
Tavria - name Crimean peninsula and south of Ukraine (Northern T.) at 19 - early. 20th century
Tauromenos is an ancient city in Sicily.
Taman - Tmutorokan, Tamatarkha, Matarkha, Matrika, Matrakha, Maritandis, Tom, Tom Tarkhan, Samkerts, Sharukan. As an administrative territory of the entire peninsula: Belaya Kumaniya, Taman.
Tana is an ancient city on the left bank of the Don River near the city of Azov and the Don River itself.
Tanais is an ancient city (3rd century BC-5th century AD) at the mouth of the river. Don and the river itself.
Tarquinia - the ancient Etruscan city is famous for the royal family of Takvinii (Tarkh Venev); now Tarquinia in Italy.
Tarsus - (Afar), the main city in Cilicia.
Tver is a city in Russia; founded in 1209 by the Slavs who came from the south of Europe.
Ternov (Tyrnov) - the ancient Bulgarian capital on the Yantra River; modern Veliko Tarnovo.
Tiberias - historical province and ancient city southwest coast Lake of Tiberias (Genisaret) in Palestine, the main city of the lower Galilee (Gaul of Palestine); the population was called "Tiberians", then "Nazarenes"; hence came Jesus and all his apostles.
Tiberiopol - an ancient Slavic city in Western Macedonia (later names - Velichka, Strumnitsa); founded by fugitives from Palestine.
Tyre, a seaside city-state in Phoenicia; founded in 4 thousand BC; modern Sur in Lebanon.
Tire (Thira, Santorini) is a group of volcanic islands in the Aegean Sea with the port of Thira.
Tire (Tira, Tiras) - an ancient city (6th century BC - 3rd century AD) on the banks of the Dniester estuary, near the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky.
Tiryns is one of the oldest centers of Mycenaean culture in Argolis, in the Peloponnese. The first settlement dates back to the Neolithic period. Heyday - by the 14th-13th centuries. BC. During excavations, tablets with linear writing were found.
Tyrol is a historical region in Europe, in the Alps.
The Tyrrhenian Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. Named in ancient times from the Tyrrhenian people (natives of Tyre, who founded all cities with similar names).
Tirtsa (Tivertsa, Ferza, Fersa) - the capital of the Israelite kingdom before Samaria.
Tom (Tom, Tomy, Ovidiopol) - a city at the mouth of the Danube, at first a Dorian colony; later the episcopal city of Lesser Scythia in the 2nd-5th centuries. AD; modern city of Constanta.
Tom is one of the former names of Taman.
Tor - the former name of the city of Slavyansk in Ukraine (renamed under Catherine 11) in honor of the 9th Slavic regiment guarding A.V. Suvorov.
Torki is the former name of the Russian city (modern since 1917 - Trakai).
Transylvania - (Semigradje) historical region in Romania; formerly part of Hungary.
Transoxiana - (the land beyond the Oxus - the early name of the Amu Darya), a historical region in Central Asia.
Troad - a historical region in Mysia, in Asia Minor.
Tours is a city in France, the main city of the historical region of Touraine.
Tura - 1. River in the West. Siberia; 2. The capital of the Evenki a.o.
The Turan lowland is a plain in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.
Turdetania is a historical region on the territory of modern Andalusia.
Touraine (Touraine) - a historical region in France in the Loire basin; includes dep. Indre and Loire.
Touraine is the former name of Turin (Italy).
Turinsk is a city in Sverdlovsk region(until 1600 - Yepanchin).
Tysmenitsa - an old Russian city in Ukraine, not far from Ivano-Frankivsk; known from chronicles since 1143.
Ubii is the capital city of the Germanic tribe of the Ubii (since 50 BC - the Agrippa colony, then the Colony, the modern city of Cologne).
Ugarit - city-state 2 thousand BC in Phenicia.
Ugrian Rus (Hungarian Rus) is a historical region that received its name even before the arrival of the Hungarians.
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Umbria is a historical region in Italy; its borders were in the north of the river. Rubicon, in the west - r. Tiber, in the northeast - the coast of the Adriatic Sea, and in the south and east - the river. Nar. During the era of Etruscan colonization, many cities were built on the lands of Umbria.
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Wales (in the old days Veles), a peninsula in the west of Great Britain.
Phanagora - the former local name of the ancient city (between Taman and Sennaya), in which there was a lighthouse on the mountain (lantern on the mountain).
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Kherson - the most important of the cities of the Greek colony of Tauric Chersonesos; in the Middle Ages - Korsun; since 1778 - again Kherson.
Chersonese (from Greek - peninsula, cape) Thracian - on the Sea of ​​Marmara; Chersonese Tauride in the Crimea; Chersonese Cretan or Akritian.
Khlynov - the former name of the ancient city before being renamed Vyatka (Vyatko or Vyachko, and in Christian terms, Prince Vyacheslav died.
Khorasan - a historical region in the NE of Iran; the center of the Parthian kingdom in 250 BC - 224 AD. In the 3rd-18th centuries. H. included C of Iran, the Merv oasis of the south of modern. Turkmenistan, part of Herat and Balkh.
Khorezm is the former name of Khiva.
The Khorezm Sea is one of the names of the Aral Sea.
Horeb is the former name of the mountains of Sinai.
Khorsabad is an ancient fortress founded by the Assyrian king Sargon (King Gon, King Gun) in 717 BC. near the city of Mosul.
Horutania is the Slavic name for Carinthia; from the ancient name of the Slovenes - Horutans.
Khotyn is an ancient Russian city on the Dniester, which was again conquered from the Turks in 1769.
Khromkla (Rumkale, Romkla) is a medieval city near Tarsus in Cilicia.
Tsera - (tse Ra) the name of an ancient Etruscan city (modern Chetveteri).
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Chernigov - an old Russian city in Ukraine; known from chronicles since 907.
Montenegro - in the past, a historical region, a state on the Balkan Peninsula.
Black Mountains - volcanic mountains in the Crimea (Karadag). These mountains and the neighboring Black Sea steppes gave the name local lands Black Rus'.
Chernaya Zemlya is the former name of Black Rus' or Volga Bulgaria.
Black Rus' - the name in the 13-14 centuries. NW of Belarusian lands in bass. the upper Neman from the years. Gorodno, Novogorodok, Volkovysk, Slonim, Zditov, Lida, Nesvizh. From the 10th c. - in Dr. Russian state-ve; from 13 - in the Grand Duchy of Russia and Litvinsky.
The Black Sea is the modern name of the sea, which was called by ancient and later authors: the Russian Sea, the Rum Sea, the Pontus of Euxinus, Pontos, Bontus, the Nitas Sea, the An-Nitasi Sea (near Idrisi in the 12th century).
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Aegippius - (Egypt, Egypt) one of the ancient names of the Kuban.
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Yuriev - the former name of the Russian city; after the capture by the Germans - Dorpat; modern - Tallinn.
Jutland is a peninsula in Europe, between the North and Baltic Seas, as part of Denmark and Germany.
Jutta (from Heb. Mountainous country) is a city near Hebron in Palestine.
Yaik is the former name of the Ural River.
Yaksart - (Aksart) the ancient name of the branch of the Syr Darya before the Arab conquest in the early 8th century.
Janovo - the official name of the city of Jonava until 1917.
Yarov - the name of the city-fortress in the north-east of England-England in the 8th century; modern - Jarrow.
Yaroslavl is an old Russian city in Galicia. Yaroslavl - regional center Russia; founded in 1010.
Yathrib (Yatreb) - the former name of the city of Medina.

The system of statehood in ancient Greece was unique and uncharacteristic for ancient world. Consider why the Greeks are the inventors of democracy.

The polis system of ancient Greece

Despite the fact that the entire territory of Ancient Greece was united by a common language, cultural values, religion, traditions, art, being and much more, which include the social, cultural and spiritual spheres of society, politically Ancient Greece was a disparate state. Every Big City, called a policy, had a territory under its control, laws in force on it, and its own management system. It is in the Greek city-states that democracy, which has practically reached its ideals, is reflected, when the people determined the power and political course for the coming time.

Rice. 1. Map of Greek policies.

Not all Greek cities had elected authorities. For example, in Sparta, power belonged to two kings at once, who controlled the city.

The classical city-state in Ancient Greece included not only a settlement, but also surrounding arable lands, pastures, and smaller settlements. Each city-state was inhabited by citizens of the polis with the right to vote, free foreigners and slaves. Polis in ancient Greece was the center of crafts and trade, the center of concentration of resources and the formation of political and social institutions.

In some policies, the number of free citizens was less than foreigners or slaves.

The policy sizes varied. largest area occupied Sparta (8400 sq. km), in which Laconia was a historical region, and later Messenia was annexed. Attica, with its capital in Athens, owning the islands of Salamis and Orop, had 2650 sq. km. The size of other areas, as a rule, did not exceed 1000 square meters. km.

Rice. 2. Spartan warrior.

In the polis system, some rudiments of specialization of the regions are noticeable. In some policies there was not enough livestock, in others - wheat. The largest grain harvest was gathered on the Athenian, Eleusinian and Marathon plains. In Boeotia, cattle breeding and fishing were successful.

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All in all, in ancient Greece there were several large policies and policies that played a significant role in the political games of the Greek archons-rulers. These are, first of all, Athens and Sparta. But a significant role in the life of the Greeks was played by Thebes and Mycenae, Corinth and Delphi.

Colonial activity of policies

The colonial activity of the Greeks in ancient times is known. Having fast and strong ships, they plowed the expanses of the Mediterranean Sea. Greek colonies were founded in the Crimea and the Caucasus, on the coast of Cyrenaica and Southern Italy, in Spain and Asia Minor. On the shores of the Bosporus, a colony-city of Byzantium was founded, on the site of which, thousands of years later, Constantinople (Istanbul) will still stand.

The first wave of colonization was driven by rising birth rates. The Greeks in Greece simply did not have enough space on the peninsula. People were looking for a better life in other, undeveloped lands.

Rice. 3. Map of the Greek colonies.

The second wave occurred due to the invasion of Greece by the Dorians, who displaced part of the indigenous population.

What have we learned?

Greek policies in antique time turned out to be an island of democracy in the monarchical states surrounding the Balkans. Thousands of years ago, the first experience of people's power took place in policies, which has gained wide popularity at the present time.

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Ancient Hellas... No other country in the world, either before it or after it, has had such a huge impact in its scale on the entire world civilization and on the formation and development of Western culture. It is to the ancient Hellenes that we owe, in a certain sense, the universal beginning of our ideas about politics and science, about philosophy and literature, about architecture and about art. And even more so, it seems surprising that the combined population of all ancient Greek cities was just over a million people.

Argos

The city of Argos is one of the oldest cities in the world. The age of this city is no less than seven thousand years! Argos, due to its extremely favorable geographical position, has always been very important in a strategic sense. locality throughout the Mycenaean period. During the classical period, the city of Argos opposed Sparta, fought for political influence in the Peloponnese. During the famous Greco-Persian wars, the city remained neutral, not supporting any of the parties to this conflict, and therefore, for some time, remained isolated.

The greatest flowering of Argos came in the seventh century BC during the reign of the famous king Phidon, who managed to conquer all the cities of Argolis, after which he again entered into a confrontation with Sparta for the Peloponnese peninsula, and almost for the first time in history, Argos could oppose the "city of warriors" on an equal footing. Before the Roman conquest, Argos was in the Achaean League and maintained friendly relations with Athens.

Athens

Athens - a city that got its name from the goddess of wisdom and knowledge - one of the oldest cities in the world, is now the capital of modern Greece. It is this city that can rightfully be considered the cradle of democracy, freedom and art. This city was supposedly founded by the Pelasgians, an ancient, pre-Indo-European people who inhabited the Balkan Peninsula. There is an opinion that in the language of the Pelasgians "Athens" meant "hill" or "hill", but, with the advent of the Hellenes, the name became associated with Athena.

In the years 1600-1200 BC, in the era of Mycenae, Athens was already a fairly famous city, but the city reached the full flowering of its shining glory during the period that historians call the "golden age" of ancient Greek culture - in the 6th-5th centuries. BC. It was during this period that Athens became one of the most important cultural and political centers.

Athens was famous all over the world, first of all, for its philosophical schools. It is to Athens that the whole world owes the brilliant thought of Aristotle and. Even after the conquest by the Romans in 146 BC, the city did not lose its power and colossal significance. Athens became a province only in the sixth century of our era, during the reign of the Byzantine Empire, under Emperor Justinian the First.

Delphi

In the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, Delphi already had a cult significance for Ancient Hellas. True, scientists, alas, were able to answer exactly when exactly this city was founded. But it is known that even in the deepest antiquity, it was in Delphi that a cult of veneration of the deity of Mother Earth developed. In the second half of the second millennium BC, the city was in decline, however, already in the middle of the first millennium BC. became important again.

The heyday of this city is directly related to the First Sacred War of Delphi against the city of Chris, which ended with its destruction. Already in the seventh-sixth centuries BC, Delphi became something of a common sanctuary for all Hellenes. The soothsayer, that is, the local Delphic oracle, had a huge impact throughout ancient Greece in religious and political affairs. Well, and, of course, we should not forget about the famous Pythian games, which began to be held in Delphi from the beginning of the sixth century.

After the Olympic Games, this event was perhaps the second most important religious, sports and cultural event in all of Ancient Hellas. Also, not least, the authority of Delphi was also associated with the fact that it was in it that the omfal, the sacred stone, was kept. In the first century BC, the Thracians literally devastated Delphi. Emperor Theodosius the First in 394 AD, together with the ban on the Olympic Games, also vetoed appeals to the Oracle.

Patras

The city of Patras was founded in the sixth century BC by the Achaeans of Lakoniki, who were pressed by the Darians on the Peloponnese peninsula. Prevgenis, the leader of the Achaeans, united three settlements: Mesati, Aroi and Anfia, thereby founding Patras. Prevgenis named the city after his son Patreos. In the XIV century BC, this city becomes almost the largest economic and political center in all of Attica. In the X century BC. there's been a change political system. Instead of the already traditional tsarist rule, power passed to the civilian majority.

During the Persian invasion in 480, Patras were burned to the ground, but the surviving inhabitants of the city, united with other Hellenes, defeated the Persians and literally rebuilt their city from ruins and ashes. The Romans also appreciated the favorable location of the city and already during their reign, they built a huge port in Patras. The Romans also granted Patras the privilege of minting their own coins. At the same time, a water supply system, an amphitheater and the Odeon were built in Patras.

Thessaloniki

The ancient Greek city of Thessaloniki was founded in 315 by the Macedonian king Cassander, uniting twenty-six settlements in it. The city was created according to all the Greek traditions that could be preserved in it until the fifteenth century. When the Romans captured Thessaloniki in 146 BC, the city was not yet a strategically important center. But already in the days of the Byzantine Empire, its significance increased considerably. Thessaloniki found itself at the intersection of two important routes at the same time: from Athens to the Black Sea region and from Constantinople to Rome. Thessaloniki became the second largest and most important city in the entire Byzantine Empire after the Arabs captured Antioch and Alexandria.